PennTags Feed for /tag/mental_illness

American exorcism : expelling demons in the land of plenty / Michael W. Cuneo.

Cuneo, Michael. American exorcism : expelling demons in the land of plenty. New York : Doubleday, 2001. 3-26.

In “Part I: The Exorcist as Hero”, Cuneo describes America's surprisingly widespread fascination with exorcism. He points out two major contributing factors: the influence of the mainstream entertainment industry and the impact of contemporary cultural attitudes on society.

He discusses the novel and film of The Exorcist, claiming that its instant media attention sparked an avid interest in the healing power of faith. Since Blatty created the narrative from a supposed exorcism case, audiences across the nation had difficulty in separating reality from fantasy. Cuneo believes there was an overwhelming consensus regarding the image of the two Fathers who performed the exorcism--that of self-sacrificing heroes who commanded respect for the Church. It was not their scientific expertise that helped them wage the battle against evil, but rather their faith and knowledge of mysterious powers that saved Regan.

Consequently, from the mid to late-1970s, almost every media outlet concerned itself with exorcism and its validity. Newspapers, radio casts, talk shows, and even a series of related films were released (Devil Times Five, The Possessed, Good Against Evil, etc.). Furthermore, possibly because the entertainment industry is known to shape public opinion and capture the national psyche, there was a sudden increase in possession cases reported to Catholic rectories.

Throughout the rest of the section, he argues that modern US culture supports the use of exorcism. It is apparently readily available, cheap and fast; it does not require a lot of time and investment like many other treatments. Exorcism practices are also morally exculpatory, in that they place the blame of one’s problems outside of the self—it is essentially a guilt-free process. These are all precisely American values. In addition, it can even be seen as an alternative therapy. Since the current biomedical system is often unfeeling, heavily bureaucratic, and too technical, such therapies are seen as comforting and supportive. In line with Cuneo’s ideas, instead of seeing the problem as cholesterol or genes, many Americans actually think of it as a demon. Exorcism offers the possibility of a fresh start—a rebirth of sorts.

However, he acknowledges the fact that not everyone is equally influenced by the media nor our current cultural ideals. He maintains that exorcism is a “ritualized placebo”—those who want it to work, will believe it to work, and will actually feel changes as a result.

In continuation, though Cuneo watched hundreds of exorcisms, he never witnessed any strange happenings. He attributed many conditions to sound medical, social, or psychological causes. Since people report its efficacy though, he concludes that the practice has the potential to be advantageous, but not in the ways as advertised by the media. One can only judge its effectiveness on a personal level. Overall, American exorcism tests the limits of traditional religious values, pop culture, and current beliefs in psycho-spiritual healing practices, thus shaping the face of modern religion.

Clinical Social Work Journal_ Spirit Possession and Exorcism in the Treatment of a Bedouin Psychiatric Patient

^{Al-Krenawi, Alean and Graham, John.  "Spirit Possession and Exorcism in the Treatment of a Bedouin Psychiatric Patient."  Clinical Social Work Journal 25.2 (1997).  
     10 May 2008 .}

This study investigated the diagnostic decisions regarding the case of a Bedouin psychiatric patient, called “M”, who underwent sudden and severe behavioral changes. He felt angrily towards his mother’s disrespect for his wife, eventually instigating several arguments, and nearly physically attacked her.

He was referred to the nearest biomedical hospital, where he was diagnosed as a paranoid schizophrenic with auditory and visual hallucinations that were themed around demonic images. The psychiatrist also gave him anti-psychotics in order to alleviate the hallucinations. Though the drugs calmed him, they did not eliminate these intrusive images. M failed to improve until he received guidance from a social worker, who arranged treatment with a traditional healer upon consideration of his Muslim background. (Because they highly regard the Mother figure, any wrongdoing towards her is considered sinful. Thus, M believed that God inflicted punishment by imbuing him with evil spirits.)

The healer, or Dervish, functions as a Bedouin version of an exorcist, working to treat mental and physical illness through the use of ritual and prayer. He diagnosed M as being possessed by demons, and went on to perform Tazeem, which is a dialogue with spirits—much like Western exorcism. The Dervish overpowered the evil spirits and managed to quickly relieve M of both his hallucinations and pent-up anger.

He continued seeing both biomedical and traditional practitioners until he felt fully restored. The psychiatrist admitted his initial diagnosis was incorrect, since the medications were not appropriate for M’s condition as he should have been classified as neurotic. Understanding his cultural framework, which insists on an external locus of control, was crucial for offering him effective treatment. Thus, the modern, scientific system would have been futile without the integration of traditional, religious-inspired practices. The authors posit that both realms should be seen on the same level, as complementary structures enriching one another.

In terms of the film, The Exorcist presented the ritual as outrageous and dramatic. However, this actually promoted the curiosity of many viewers, compelling them to explore the possibility of exorcism as a real phenomena with tangible benefits. People began to entertain ideas relating to practices of the occult, which involve superstition and supernatural powers; many took an interest in studying foreign cultures and understanding their belief systems for healing. As addressed in this article, it turned out that the synthesis of both science and religion proved to give the best outcome.

Hence, the film was influential in shaping America’s modern day religious scene. Many fans started to explore what they initially feared, opening up their minds to a new world in which otherwise ‘strange’ and seemingly ‘uncultivated’ practices were discovered to be actually useful towards mental health. In essence, people began to realize that biomedicine, alone, does not always provide the best answers.

Journal of Personality Assessment_Dissociative Trance Disorder: Clinical and Rorschach Findings

Ferracuti, Stefano and Sacco, Roberto.  "Dissociative Trance Disorder: Clinical and Rorscharch Findings."  Journal of Personality Assessment.  66.3 (1996).  10 May 2008. .

Ferracuti and Sacco, two psychiatrists, conducted a study on non-psychiatric individuals who believed they were possessed by the devil. From a biomedical perspective, the purpose of their research was to better understand and potentially classify their unique behaviors. After receiving permission from the official exorcist of the Rome diocese, subjects were recruited from weekly exorcisms. Participants, who all strongly followed the Roman Catholic faith, were administered the Dissociative Disorders Diagnostic Schedule, Roscharch Test, and clinical interviews.

Findings suggest that DTD is a distinct clinical manifestation on a dissociative continuum. It shares many personality features with Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID, formerly known as Multiple Personality Disorder), such as altered states of consciousness with a foreign identity, problems in control, psychological complexity, and feelings of guilt. However, those specifically with DTD use extreme dissociation for regenerative purposes, only performing the ‘possessed’ behaviors in a socially accepted, safe, and controlled environment. Otherwise known as an exorcism in the Catholic Church, this setting allows people to reorganize their inner conscious state around an image of “evilness”, thus allowing the expression of inappropriate and unacceptable behaviors. The belief in a state of possession functions as an external control for the low capacity for ego integration and reality distortion manifested by these individuals. In other words, the Church provides coping devices that work as effective therapeutic mechanisms, in which possession serves to fulfill various needs by giving people a chance to let out repressed feelings and develop a more organized ego framework. The exorcist works as a guide in this endeavor, eventually helping people control their socially denied impulses while simultaneously replenishing their faith.

Had the authors not known about the individuals’ religious beliefs, the diagnosis would have been high-functioning neurotic with DID, instead of DTD. They consider the major differences between DTD and DID attributable to traditional cultural attitudes, which influence the belief in possession. Claims of ‘possession’ signify an effort towards ego integration, giving people a sense of security and thus revealing the importance of exorcism as a valuable religious practice.

Their study directly relates to an issue in The Exorcist: if possession is a ‘real’ phenomenon, what does it look like? Also, where does one draw the line between mental illness, where science is most useful, and possession, in which religion offers the best treatment? Ferracuti and Sacco emphasize how DTD can be understood as a psychiatric condition with problems in ego dissociation, potentially treatable through psychotherapy and other biomedical means. However, they also acknowledge the importance of cultural beliefs in shaping its outcome. The possession state exists to those who believe in it, and consequently, many fans were curious enough to reconsider their religious commitment, as well as their views on the causes and remedies of mental psychopathology. This once taboo issue quickly became the center of attention for some time.

Catholic News Service_Catholic exorcist: Demonic influence is strong in today's world

Thavis, John. "Catholic Exorcist: Demonic influence is strong in today's world." Catholic Online International News 29 Aug 2006. Catholic News Services. 10 May 2008. .

This article was written during a religious Communion and Liberation conference in Rimini, Italy in August of 2006. The journalist describes the controversial beliefs of Rome Diocese exorcist, Father Amorth. He has spoken openly about demonic possession, and feels strongly about the existence of the devil and its influences, which come in several forms. According to his knowledge, every culture in mankind has been aware of these powers. He goes on to say that not only individuals can become possessed, but also entire groups of people, and ultimately, populations. He mentions how he is certain that Hitler and the Nazi regime were under the devil’s influence, as well as Stalin and other major world leaders.

Father Amorth thinks that the reason why demonic influence has such a strong global presence is due to the steadying decline in Christian believers, and the shift to superstition and occult practices which rely on magic, spirits, and other supernatural phenomena. Though he acknowledges that devil possession is extremely rare, he posits that the only way to heal those who have been ‘enticed’ is through the ritual of exorcism. This involves a chant supported by the church, which will overcome the evil forces.

This respected religious figure brings forth a major theme throughout The Exorcist. Does the devil exist?, and if so, can it be overcome through religious means? In fact, during the first half of the movie, Regan’s mother only trusts science and technology in discovering her daughter’s condition. The team of physicians thinks her behavior originates from mental illness, but cannot seem to find any abnormalities that could explain her sudden personality changes. She is in complete shock when they suggest exorcism, and only allows herself to believe in Regan’s possession merely because she thinks nothing is actually wrong with her. Hence, it must have been some outside force inflicting this harm, and so the devil must indeed be real.

In addition, the ending was highly ambiguous to most viewers. It could have promoted them to question the existence of God, with the torment of an innocent girl and the eventual death of two Fathers. Or, on the other hand, the closing events could have caused people to re-affirm their faith in the Church, with the victory of religious rite over evil, since the exorcism returns Regan to her normal and healthy state. In essence, the interpretation is highly personal, where some may side with Father Amorth and his statements on the value of exorcism, while others may find this deplorable and refuse to believe in the possibility of demonic possession. Still many others fall in between, not quite certain about the position of religion and the causes of evil.

The Exorcist (1973)

A Psychoanalytic and Feminist View of Blanche's Mental Health

Leibman, Nina C. “Sexual Misdemeanor/Psychoanalytic Felony.” Cinema Journal, 26.2 (Winter, 1987): 27-38. University of Texas Press. University of Pennsylvania Library, Philadephia. 7 April 2008. <http://hdl.library.upenn.edu/1017/6965/2>.

In this article, Leibman analyzes the deterioration of Blanche’s mental health, and relates it to both Freudian theory and inherent sexism in Hollywood. A specialist of psychoanalysis in film theory, Leibman comments on the rising predominance of women in Freudian-oriented films after the 1950s. To her, sex and sexuality appear to be the essential factors for a heroine’s mental illness, and a protagonist falling victim to her own sexuality is no exception in Streetcar. Though the actual cause of Blanche’s developing insanity is unknown to audiences, Leibman believes that her promiscuity is what ultimately leads to her downfall. Taking psychiatry into account, Leibman believes that Hollywood maintains an inherent patriarchal status quo by ignoring Freud’s theories of repression and neurosis. Freud states that it is important to release our repressed sexual thoughts in order to avoid any form of psychosis—and because Blanche does not succeed in liberating these notions, she is essentially “punished” for her restraint through expulsion from her hometown and family, along with paranoia and other forms of mental illness.
Even though Blanche continually professes her innocence, all her of claims are nullified by her behavior. However, because viewers hear of these improprieties indirectly, it is harder for her to earn an audience’s sympathy. In comparison, Leibman claims that Stella, who may initially seem to embody an almost longing for her husband, is also victim to this psychological sexism. While her attraction to Stanley is blatant, the fact that she loves him rather than lusts for him reemphasizes the fact that desire is what “destroys” women. Thus, Leibman argues that because Stella is passive she is feminine, while Blanche’s overt sexuality keeps her from traditionally female ideals, such as a calm, selfless, nurturing disposition. Though Leibman’s claims may not be grounded in fact, she provides a provocative counterargument for those who celebrate Streetcar’s progressive representations of modern society.

A Psychoanalytic and Feminist View of Blanche's Mental Health

20th Century History of the Treatment of Mental Illness: A Review

Palmer, A. (2000). 20th century treatment of mental illness. Mental Health World, 2, Retrieved April 8, 2008, from http://www.mentalhealthworld.org/29ap.html

This article by Ann Palmer investigates the history of the treatment of mental illness. It begins by looking at the view of mental illness in the 19th century. In those times, the insane were viewed as incurable and subhuman, condemned to life in jail cells or almshouses. As time went on, however, professionals dealing with the mentally ill were expected to treat them with respect and compassion. This led to the rise of the asylum system, whose main goal was to isolate “lunatics” in hopes that this would be therapeutic and enable them to return to the “normal” community. These asylums employed such techniques as wrist and ankle restraints, and stupor-inducing drugs, to force the mentally ill into docility. After the conditions of asylums were made known, responsibility for the mentally ill moved to the state. It was hoped that this would ensure better conditions for the inmates. Even so, these new state mental hospitals were far from ideal. Misguided treatments included untested drugs, electroconvulsive therapy, induced seizures, and, perhaps more horrifying of all, lobotomies.
In the 50s and 60s, and most notably with President Kennedy's Community Mental Health Centers Act, there began a movement towards shifting the treatment of the mentally ill from an asylum system to a community-based mental health system. Though this tended to ignore the more severely and chronically ill patients, it did enable many patients to live independently within a community, and was a vast improvement to the mental hospitals of before. Films such as Cuckoo's Nest also served to persuade the public against the use of electroconvulsive shock therapy, and led to the focus of the medical community on antipsychotic drugs instead.
This article is significant to the film because it describes the difficulties in mental health care that the movie illuminates. One of the most powerful aspects of the film is its portrayal of a psychiatric ward. Though on the surface the ward is clean, well-kept, and tightly run, there is an undercurrent of repression and cruelty. Cuckoo's Nest serves just as well as an eye-opener as it does a critique of mental hospital conditions. The film takes place in the 60s, after the archaic asylum system was demolished, but before the community-based system firmly took hold. We can see evidence of this transition phase in the film. The laughable “group therapy” sessions, and Nurse Ratched's tireless insistence that the inmates behave in a manner compliant with the entire ward's desires are signs of the effort to move toward community mental health care. This system is even parodied in the film. When McMurphy attempts to change the TV schedule for a day in order to watch the World Series, Nurse Ratched demands a majority vote. She claims that schedule changes are to be made only if they are accepted by the whole community, even though only one more vote would enable McMurphy to win. This mocks the idea that there is even such a thing as a communally beneficial system.
There are signs, too, of the older, more barbaric mental health care facilities. When a few of the inmates cause an uproar during one of the group meetings, they are all sentenced to a round of electroconvulsive therapy. The procedure is shown with dramatic realism, and presents it as a form of brutality. In the powerful ending, McMurphy is shown after having undergone a lobotomy: a blank, mindless drone devoid of any of the human nature and individuality he came in with.