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Wartime Germany: Concerts and cinema to the bitter end

Mommert. Wilfried . "Wartime Germany: Concerts and cinema to the bitter end," Deutsche Presse-Agentur 19 Mar 1995. LexisNexis. 29 Nov 2008

Nazi Germany had a thriving arts and entertainment culture until all theaters were shut down September of 1944 as a step toward pursuing “total war.” Up until this point, the theaters held regular showings of films and concerts despite the fact that many were destroyed by Allied bombings. These theaters were in use until the Nazis were on the edge of defeat. Despite setbacks with the war and the continued bombings by the Allies, films were still made and shown up until the end of the war. Twenty eight films were works in progress when the war ended. Concerts were also still shown regularly. Thirty operas were ready for performance but never actually put on stage. Resources were still being allocated to put on new operas and films despite the fact that Germany was in "total war," and all resources were allocated to the war effort supposedly. Film and concerts were the main forms of amusement and diversion for the German people, and the Nazis felt that keeping the masses' minds diverted and happy was still important.
This article really shows the misguided priorities of the Nazis. Resources that could have been used for the war effort were misallocated to film production and concert staging. The Nazis were concerned with appeasing the masses, even though they were about to lose the war. Maintaining the support of the masses was a core value for the Nazis to attain and maintain their power, but if they lost the war, they would lose their power immediately. These efforts to keep the masses happy were completely pointless and wasteful. Goebbels proclaimed that he closed the theaters to put Germany on the track of “total war,” yet this obviously did not shut down the entertainment industry. The film Kolberg began production in 1942 and was not released until 1945 (Thompson and Bordwell 274). This film was the costliest of the Nazi cinema projects, and it was made at a time when Germany was losing the war and about to be defeated (Thompson and Bordwell 274). Goebbels even diverted 200,000 troops from battle to be used in Kolberg's production (Thompson and Bordwell 274). Overall, the Nazis wasted their resources on film and the arts during a critical time during the war when Germany could not afford it.

Thompson, Kristin, and David Bordwell. Film History An Introduction. 2nd. New York: McGraw Hill, 2003.

A Nazi Piece of Work

Marshall. L. "A Nazi Piece of Work," Herald Sun 06 May 1995. LexisNexis. 1 Dec 2008

While Kolberg, has been criticized for being such an extravagant film that was filmed very late in the war and so close to Germany's defeat, there was another film that was being produced after Kolberg. The production of this film went on almost until Germany’s defeat. With shortages, bombings, and death only twenty miles away, Goebbels ordered the making of another extrazagant film, Das Leben geht weiter or Life Goes On. The set designer of this last film of the Nazi era, was instructed to “spare no expense to recreate the aftermath of the devastating Berlin air raids in November 1943”(Marshall). This film was meant to be an updated version of Kolberg that just as extravagant. The idea of the film was Goebbels', who definitely became obsessed with film. This last film had mostly been forgotten in history. This is in part because those involved were embarrassed they were part of the film , so they did not talk about the film. The other reason is that the footage was completely lost.
Most film historians view Kolberg as Goebbels' last production and biggest folly, but Das Leben geht weiter apparently takes its place. This last film shows how illogical Goebbels was. Germany did not have the resources to endure in World War II, but Goebbels felt that it had the resources to make a 2.5 million marks budget film. Goebbels' priorities were very misguided. He definitely should have had someone checking his power. Goebbels wasted so many of Germany’s resources on useless film production. Kolberg was barely viewed by audiences and Das Leben geht weiter was never finished and the footage was completely lost. Even if these films had been viewed, they still would have been wasteful because the resources were needed so much more for the war effort. Goebbels definitely overvalued film to the point where he was willing to sacrifice the war. While this wasteful film production was not the cause of Germany’s loss, it definitely did nothing to help Germany endure with so many resources were being diverted away from the war.

From Caligari to Hitler, a psychological history of the German film

Kracauer, Siegfried, 1889-1966. . From Caligari to Hitler, a psychological history of the German film, by Siegfried Kracauer. series [Princeton, N.J.] Princeton university press, 1947.
Call#: Ctr for Adv Judaic Studies Lib, 4th & Walnut Sts. CJS PN1993.5.G3 K7 1942

Kracauer, Siegfried. From Caligari to Hitler, a psychological history of the German Film. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1947.

“Nazi Views And Measures”

All films in Nazi Germany were propaganda films. Newsreels and features were the two forms of propaganda. Newsreels were a means of propaganda not information. The purpose of newsreels was to give the German people skewed world views. The production of newsreels greatly increased at the onset of WWII. While newsreels portrayed falsified messages, the scenes shown were never faked—they were always actual footage taken on site. This element made these propaganda newsreels more believable. The Nazis prided themselves on the fact that the cameramen for newsreels were like “regular soldiers, doing a soldier’s full duty, always in the first lines…” (Kracauer 276). The deaths of these cameramen and reporters at the front lines were emphasized to the public to reiterate the fact that the reporters were, indeed, amongst the soldiers on the war front. These newsreels were considerably long, so that the propaganda techniques could be repeated for increased effectiveness. While newsreels were long, unlike feature films, newsreels were produced rapidly so that the information was timely and viewed as actual news.
While in my thesis I use the broad term film, I only consider the term to describe feature films. This chapter highlights the importance of the newsreel. The newsreel is a form of film propaganda that I really should not have ignored. Because of the newsreel’s entirely different nature, its inclusion would have given my thesis more depth. The newsreel did not have the same production costs or length of time needed for production because all the footage is filmed live at the scene. Considering these facts, newsreels as film propaganda were much more cost effective than feature films. While newsreels directly told Germans what to believe, newsreels still were subtle forms of propaganda because they were being portrayed in documentary style as fact. In my thesis I argued that film was overvalued by the Nazis at times because of its great cost when resources were needed badly for the war effort. Newsreels, though, would have served as a good compromise. Still, though, when the situation with the war became very dire, resources should never have been diverted from the war effort.

Film as Propaganda, overvalued by the Nazis at times

Did the Nazis overvalue film (specifically during the filming of Kolberg)? The Nazis, embodied by minister of propaganda Joseph Goebbels, did overvalue film at times; specifically, this overvaluation of film is illustrated in the diversion of needed war resources to the film industry when Germany was approaching defeat, i.e. the production of Kolberg. The Nazis (Goebbels) placed a great importance on propaganda because they wanted a unified Germany, and they needed to maintain an appearance of strength to maintain public support, which was necessary to maintain power. Film was the most important form of propaganda because of its great effectiveness due to its subtlety and ability to reach the masses. Because of this importance of film to the Nazi cause, Goebbels, the minister of propaganda, remained preoccupied with the production of propaganda films even when the war was being badly lost. The best example of this is the production of the film Kolberg. During its production Germany was suffering many military losses and its economy was suffering. Despite the fact that Germany needed all the troops and resources it could get for the war, Goebbels diverted these troops and resources to this extravagant film with the hope that the film would inspire the support of the citizens, yet the film was released only a few months prior to German defeat. Overall, these misguided priorities of choosing investment in film versus directly into the war show that the Nazis overvalued film because they stubbornly stuck to the principles that got the Nazis in power, ignoring the dire situation with the war.

Three Philosophical Filmmakers: Hitchcock, Welles, Renoir by Irving Singer

Singer, Irving. "Jean Renoir." Three Philosophical Filmmakers: Hitchcock, Welles, Renoir. Palatino: MIT Press, 2004: 146-219.

Irving Singer holds the belief that each of Renoir's films led him on a path to discovery of both the culture around him and himself. He believes that Renoir's character of Octave in Rules of the Game is actually a self-representation: that Renoir desired to play himself, someone that "lost contact with the public" (149). Octave is also shown as slightly inept and mismanaged, revealing Renoir's attempt to level and connect with the public. Singer includes a comment made by Renoir stating that he's only ever "shot one film," maintaining the belief that Renoir strived to provide an accurate representation of French society, even when this meant he must display his views in contrast with those of the general public (147). Singer remarks, however, that Renoir so wished to connect with his audience, with his society, that he became almost desperate to achieve contact and that this desperation led to Renoir's near destruction of Rules of the Game when he continually cut out pieces of the film that may have offended audiences. Singer believes that, in the years leading up to WWII, Renoir's main goal in his filmmaking was to explore how people relate to each other, to nature, and to technology. Singer also expresses the belief that Renoir drew alot from Hinduism, explaining the filmmaker's desire to contrast the differences between his character's spiritual and material lives, a central theme in Rules of the Game.

Singer's chapter on Renoir provides a very interesting take on the filmmaker and his works. It is clear, especially after reading this work, that Jean Renoir was on a quest for truth, using film as a tool to capture society in its most realistic form. Rules of the Game was greatly influenced by the fact that Renoir wished to accurately depict French society though he, of course, was somewhat blinded by his own middle-class beliefs and tendencies. For instance, Renoir criticizes the bourgeios and the servants equally, as he, himself, stood in the middle ground, exempt from criticism. Renoir, however, is nowhere near self-praising; instead, the film functions somewhat as an autobiography with Renoir playing the role of Octave, his on-screen representation. Both lament that they have lost contact with the public. This comment is shown to be almost comically, though paradoxically, true: Renoir had never expected such a negative response from his audience. Up until this point, Renoir's works were, for the most part, celebrated by French society. The point at which he became public about his concerns of losing emotional and intellectual touch with the people, his work invokes a disastrous result and Renoir physically disconnects from his people by fleeing the country. This work also provides a very interesting look at another of Renoir's influences: religion, describing how the beliefs of Hinduism propelled him on his quest for turth amidst spiritual and material confusion.

Jean Renoir: Projections of Paradise by Ronald Bergan

Bergan, Ronald. "Everyone Has His Reasons." Jean Renoir: Projections of Paradise. Woodstock: The Overlook Press, 1994: 196-206.

In this chapter, Ronald Bergan goes into detail on Jean Renoir's influences for Rules of the Game. For starters, he explains that Renoir kept several elements from the original, Les Caprices de Marianne. Before writing his script, Renoir also drew from other Musset works as well as French baroque music. Bergan believes that these sources, as well as the political events surrounding Renoir, allowed him to create such a unique style in Rules of the Game - one that neatly combined "melodrama and farce" (198). Bergan emphasizes the importance of the hunting scene in the film which shows the "callous cruelty of the guests" and provides the most explicitly violent critique of French bourgeois society (203). Bergan makes a point to note the animosity between (and among) both the upper and lower classes as the solidarity of the Popular Front is now gone. While the prejudice and snobbery of the ruling class is blatantly on display, their critiqued behaviors are echoed by their servants. Bergan also explains Renoir's use of deep-focused lenses, stating that such far-reaching shots were necessary to gather all of the actions taking place in such a dynamic ensemble production. Quick shots and heavy editing would simply not show the interworkings of society that the deep, long shots are capable of. Bergan concludes his chapter by providing some explanation for the harsh critiques that Rules of the Game received by the public upon its release: at the time, Renoir was a known supporter of the Communist Party. Also, his casting provoked "right-wing, anti-semitic and xenophobic emotions" (205).

This article is extremely interesting as Ronald Bergan is able to list several stylistic influences on Renoir in writing Rules of the Game. Instead of focusing on the thematic influences such as the Munich agreement, as other critics have done, Bergan is able to hone in on specific tricks peformed by Renoir, often unorthodox, to inspire his story, such as listening to Baroque music. This offers an alternate view of Jean Renoir in which he is drawing from each and every source in his life to fuel a powerfully creative, though extremely accurate, tale of the world around him. Bergan also details the remarkable accomplishment of, in essence, creating the long shot in Rules of the Game. This huge triumph is usually overshadowed by the negative French public opinion of the film. Bergan, however, explains several concrete reasons as to why the film was met with such criticism by initial audiences. Firstly, Renoir's ties with the Communist Party would have pitted a great deal of Frenchmen against him from the start, especially after observing somet type of critique of French society. Fear of communism, especially in the current situation in Europe, could have easily allowed Rules of the Game to come off as Jean Renoir's attempt at French communist propaganda. Also, the stars of his film included a Jewish man and an Austrian woman, clearly stirring the hatred of the prejudiced and also confusing the public, in such a time of national fragility, that Renoir would even think of using possible 'enemies' to portray the French, especially in a critique.

Warner Bros. - WWII Propaganda

Citation:

Blakley, Johanna. "Propaganda, Pop Culture & Public Diplomacy.” Warner’s War: Politics, Pop Culture & Propaganda in Wartime Hollywood 73-77.

In the book entitled Warner’s War: Politics, Pop Culture & Propaganda in Wartime Hollywood, Johanna Blakley discusses the influence the Warner Bros. studio had during the wartime and how its films and cartoons influenced public opinion and war sentiment during the time. In this chapter, Blakley specifically talks about the Warner Brothers studio and how it was deeply entrenched in the pro-war movement by creating pro-war, patriotic, and antifascist films and cartoons. The article briefly talks about how Casablanca was a prime example in which Warner Bros. used a romantic theme as a stage for propagandistic undertones which supported aiding the Allied European powers. As a whole, the article demonstrates Warner Brother’s clear intention of spreading propaganda which supported the antifascist movement. This is important because it establishes a clear connection between a pro-war studio and Casablanca. This ultimately demonstrates that the studio intended to have propagandistic undertones in its film.

Casablanca in WWII Film Style

Citation:

Polan, Dana. "Stylistic Regularities (and Peculiarities) of the Hollywood World War II

Propoganda Film." Warner’s War: Politics, Pop Culture & Propaganda in Wartime Hollywood 38-47.

In the book entitled Warner’s War: Politics, Pop Culture & Propaganda in Wartime Hollywood, Dana Polan discusses the influence the Warner Bros. studio had during the wartime and how it’s films and cartoons influenced public opinion and war sentiment during the time. In this portion of the book, Polan demonstrates the particular influence and propagandistic influence of Casablanca and how this film changed the typical style of Hollywood in order to incorporate the propaganda of wartime. Polan discuss the romantic overtone of the film and how this theme keeps in line with the traditional film style of Hollywood at that time. However, she goes further to demonstrate how this romance accentuates the strong division between the two different conflicting powers in the film. This chapter serves as an important connection between propaganda and the film in that is demonstrates how the simple romantic theme is enhanced to create a protagonist hero with whom the audience can closely relate and sympathize for. She portrays how this sentiment can be perverted to support his goals of suppressing the fascist powers. Ultimately, Polan demonstrates how the romance theme closely ties into the film’s wartime significance as a part of World War II propaganda.

Nazi Propaganda and the Second World War.

Citation: Kallis, Artistotle. Nazi Propaganda and the Second World War. New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2005

In the section entitled, “Commercial and political value? The ‘entertainment film’ and NS Propaganda,” Kallis addresses film production during the sensitive war period. He explains the idea that during this time, groups such as RMVP and the RPL in accordance with the Minister of Propaganda managed every aspect of the regime’s film policy and suggests that, despite this control, there is a blur in the distinction between politics and entertainment. He goes on to present the idea that strictly political or historical films were much less appreciated than romantic comedies or dramas in German culture. In fact, it seemed as if many audiences were unmoved by the importance and significance of events captured in political film and showed little admiration or respect for political productions. Therefore, the author concludes, that “the most commercially successful films ever produced under the Third Reich were indeed popular Unterhaltungsfilme, such as the Wunschkonzert” (212). The novel stresses the belief that the success of Wunschokonzert and films of its kinds could have power over an audience and society and thus, could be used as a new form of Nazi propaganda during a time in which traditional methods of political propaganda were suffering.

This portion of the novel is relevant to looking at Wunschkonzert as a Nazi propaganda film because it stresses the idea that despite the fact that this film was considered an entertainment film, there can be no doubt that its content had an impact on German society. The film touched on social conformity; however, it remained predominantly influenced by political objectives. In fact, the way in which political propaganda was much more dispersed within the plot line rather than being the driving force behind the story seemed to be better appreciated and well received by audiences.

Casablanca - Antifascism & Propaganda

Citation:

Wilson, Kristi. "Casablanca." St. James Encyclopedia of Popular Culture. Gale Group, 1 January 2000.

In this article, Kristi Wilson gives a brief summary of the plot of the movie and expands on this superficial interpretation of the film by analyzing how the film presented a strong antifascist sentiment. Wilson begins by contrasting the different characters in the film. To begin, Lazlo and Isle gain sympathetic compassion from viewers on account of their troubling situation and the flashback history of chaos they experienced in Vichy-France. This is used the make the viewers feel empathetic towards the French Resistance. A deeper connection with such sentiment is achieved through the development of Rick’s character. Rick, whose involvement in the resistance becomes increasingly apparent as the movie progresses, creates a heroic character image in which the viewers support his endeavors. Wilson explains how such support is augmented by the viewers’ hope that his romantic endeavors succeed. In contrast with these characters, the German officers are portrayed as being stiff and unyielding. Garnering little sympathy, but rather gaining distaste for their apparent egotism, the German characters are continuously portrayed as being corrupt and malevolent. Such stark contrast, as Wilson states, creates a classic protagonist vs. antagonist in which there is a strong political undertone against the power and authority of the Nazi command. Consequently, the film demonstrates a strong antifascist motif by the way it contrasts the characters and their personal objectives and dispositions.

The Casablanca Conference

Citation:

"The Casablanca Conference, 1943." Casablanca Conference. Casablanca: U.S. Department of State, 1943.

This source comes from the U.S. Department of State and gives the historical significance and background of the Casablanca Conference of 1943. This conference, which took place between January 14^th and the 24^th of 1943, served as a meeting between U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill. Only a few weeks after the release of Casablanca, these two powerful figures met in the city to discuss the strategic plans for the Allied forces against the Axis powers. They determined to further cut off Japan, concentrate efforts in Germany, begin by removing Italy from the war, and make unconditional surrender an ultimate goal so they could guarantee “the destruction of the philosophies in those countries which are based on conquest and the subjugation of other people.” This is significant because it shows the clear political connection with the film and the film’s location. The film sparked a large interest not only in Casablanca, but also the political implications of the war. The clear connection of the two at the Casablanca Conference created a much larger appeal on account of the film’s success. In addition, the historical account also shows that the Anglo-American aid arrived in French North Africa in November 1942, the same time at which the movie was released. Ultimately, this demonstrates a clear political connection with the film.

Casablanca - NY Times Review Nov. 1942

Citation:

Crowther, Bosley. "'Casablanca' With Humphrey Bogart and Ingrid Bergman." New York Times 27 November 1942.

This is the original film review from the New York Times written on November 27, 1942 after the film’s release. This review, unlike the myriad of reviews on the films, gives the unique perspective of an erudite audience of that specific time period. The reviewer not only heralds the film as one of the greatest of all times, but remarks about its unique story and subtle tendencies. He demonstrates how Warner uses the action-packed thrill of the setting to enhance the romantic overtone to the film. Most importantly, the author describes how the film contained a strong political message. He writes that the film “inject[ed] a cold point of tough resistance to evil forces afoot in Europe today”. With this statement, it is apparent that the film was viewed as a propagandistic tool of the war effort. Its antifascist undertone and subliminal support for aiding the European cause against the Nazis is clearly demonstrated and understood at the time. This further shows how the film was viewed not only as a great romantic drama film, but also a powerful piece of propaganda that influenced its audiences.

Casablanca - Antifascism in American Cinema

Citation :

Leon, Charls L. Ponce de. "Progressive Politics and American Dreams." Review in American History September 2008: 348.

Charles L. Ponce de Leon provides a critical analysis of Lary May’s book, The Big Tomorrow: Hollywood and the Politics of the American Way. Leon begins by giving a background into film history and how cinema developed in a political manner. He demonstrates how it became politically powerful and how it can be interpreted in revisionist studies through cultural anthropology, sociology, literary criticism, and social history. It is with these methods that Leon further critiques the work of May’s book and demonstrates the true power of cinema. Leon demonstrates how cinema’s production can be used to “peddle products that are subversive” and create a specified appeal for audiences. In this manner, he claims that producers are able to use film techniques to create an exact interpretation which can vary little amongst audiences in the grand scheme. Leon also states that cinema uses political implications to challenge the authority of the elites. Such is seen in the production of Casablanca. Leon then progresses his critical analysis towards films of the 1940’s and how they were heavily influenced not only by the lingering effects of the New Deal and the Great Depression, as can be seen by the dramatic mise-en-scene of the city of Casablanca in the film. He also demonstrates how “progressive moviemakers eagerly contributed their talents to government service and a host of pro-war, antifascist films”. Leon then moves to analysis of the cultural, social, and political implications of the film Casablanca specifically. He contends that the films played an important political role to the antifascist movement and demonstrated a strong propagandistic desire to aid the resistance movement. However, he also notes that Rick’s “loss of independence” later hurt the film’s political undertones and created an opposite sentiment later on in the sixties. In all, Leon critiques May’s book which discusses the political and social effects of early cinema and discusses the value they have towards audiences. With this, he lends support to Casablanca’s social significance as a film of antifascism and pro-war significance.

Jean Renoir's Return to France by Janet Bergstrom

Bergstrom, Janet. "Jean Renoir's Return to France." Poetics Today 17.3, Creativity and Exile: European/American Perspectives I (1996): 453-89.

In this article, Janet Bergstrom strives to determine the reason behind Renoir's long exile from France after World War II as well as his abandonment of French realist style. After the bitter failure of Rules of the Game in 1939, Renoir fled to the United States where he would continue to make Hollywood films, deserting his country (and perhaps morals, ideals, and sense of self) for good. After WWII, Renoir became somewhat of a sellout, conforming to Hollywood styles and expectations. Renoir's dramatically different approach to filmmaking, however, hindered him from achieving real commercial success in Hollywood, almost hinting that Renoir could not escape the French Realism that he worked so hard to define. Bergstrom also describes Renoir's alliances with the Communist Party and how this may have hurt Rules of the Game's success in prewar France. She also examines the "betrayal" felt by many of Renoir's fans, that their French hero had deserted them (456); Renoir, however, considered himself a "citizen of the world" that followed his instinct wherever it took him (458). Bergstrom also examines the depression that overtook Renoir upon the failure of his most-loved film. It is impossible to ascertain the truth behind Renoir's motives through mere speculation, though the betrayal that Renoir himself would have felt by the angry French audiences after the release of Rules of the Game is surely necessary to take into account.

This article is extremely helpful in understanding the impact that Rules of the Game initially had on the French people and why Renoir was so changed by it. Bergstrom provides a great deal of personal information about the life of Jean Renoir before, during, and after the creation of Rules of the Game. Knowing where Renoir was, mentally and politically, at the release of the film greatly aides in understanding his extreme reaction. Rules of the Game was Renoir's first real chance to express himself freely, uninhibited by social restraint or fears. He felt that he was led by his instinct and was very happy with the work he had created. He took offense when the French public took so negatively to Rules of the Game; he was proud of his work and expected his countrymen to share in the sentiment. Upon the realization that his 'baby' was a failure, Renoir felt the need to flee. This article really puts into perspective the importance of this film to Renoir and provides legitimate reasons for his seemingly-extreme reaction.

French Cinema by Roy Armes

Armes, Roy. "The Paradoxes of French Realism." French Cinema. New York: Oxford University Press, 1985: 86-108.

Roy Armes takes a slightly different approach to analyzing Rules of the Game and the works of Renoir than my other sources. He starts off by saying that Renoir's works are not united by a common style. He, instead, characterizes Renoir's films as existing between contradictory impulses, in a state of tension. He suggests viewing and analayzing each of Renoir's films separately, each in its own contemporary setting. Armes believes this is necessary as Renoir proved to be greatly influenced by each shift, however miniscule, within French society before WWII. Each major political event in the European world of the 1930s can be seen as part of one of Jean Renoir's films. Armes acclaims Rules of the Game as Renoir's most impulsive, uninhibited work that toys with reality and illusion and also provides a "self-portrait of rare depth" (107). Armes describes the theatrical techniques used by Renoir and the 'dramatic fantasy' that he creates by forming several 'play within a play' structures. Armes believes that each pivotal moment in the film arises when two incongruously linked characters are brought together - a technique that both readily induces dramatic conflict within the film and obviously mirrors conflict within society, providing a clear juxtaposition to the imposing 2nd World War.

This article provides a different perspective from which to view the film. Unlike many other critics that group Renoir's films together as a continuous social critique, Roy Armes underlines the importance of viewing each film separately. If Renoir were truly sensitive to changes in French culture, each of his films would embody a different viewpoint and radiate an entirely different spirit. It is very important, as Armes suggests, to analyze each film in its own contemporary setting. Thus, Rules of the Game should not be immediately compared to Renoir's other works as it often is. Armes also brings up the possibility that the film was, for Renoir, something of a self portrait. This provides countless new options for viewing the film and thus, Jean Renoir. For instance, we can learn alot about Renoir and his intentions by studying the character of Octave. Paradoxically, watching the film and analyzing the character will help viewers better understand the filmmaker and, thus, his intentions with the film. The article also suggests that Renoir uses a 'dramatic fantasy' technique in order to artfully bury his political beliefs in a complicated web of relationships. Knowing this technique helps one extract Renoir's intended messages from the film.

Drole de Guerre: Renoir, Farce, and the Fall of France by Stephen Tifft

Tifft, Stephen. "Drôle De Guerre: Renoir, Farce, and the Fall of France." Representations.38 (1992): 131-65.

In his article, Stephen Tifft argues the direct relationship between the political events of Europe in the 1930s and the events and themes present in Renoir's Rules of the Game. He remarks on Renoir's use of farce to provide a harsh criticism of upper-class French society and the risks that accompany this choice. Tifft lists the dangers that accompany Renoir's choice of employing comedy in his political arguments; one such danger helps explain the negative reception of the film among the French community as Renoir's audience took immediate offense to his harsh critiques. By imbedding his political beliefs in comedy, Renoir could have given the wrong impression to the public: that he was fed up with French culture and wished merely to insult the offenders. At such a fragile time in French society, such a blatant stab at culture proved disastrous and Tifft goes into great detail about the horrendous initial reception of Renoir's film. Tifft also makes the argument that Renoir's film is concerned, directly, with the conflict in Munich at the time of the script's writing. Tifft lists several examples for this rationale including the relation between the 'Four-Power Pact' of real-life Europe and the conflicts existing between the film's characters. He also analyzes the famous hunt scene, primarily for its critique of reckless aristocratic behavior that leaves helpless members of society at the mercy of the powerful. Tifft also praises Renoir's combination of history and farce in a manner that would both draw from and influence the society it is a part of.

In this article, Tifft gives a very convincing argument to directly correlate the social and political events in 1930s Europe with Jean Renoir's Rules of the Game. Tifft provides alot of evidence, tied to specific scenes in the film, to show that a character's actions were meant to mirror an element of popular culture. With such an abundance of information, readers do not have to wholeheartedly agree with each of Tifft's points, but rather have plenty of evidence to pick and choose for themselves which aspects from Rules of the Game, if any, were directly influenced by real life events. Tifft also analyzes the film as a farce, making it easier to separate important stylistic elements of the film from mere moments of comedy.

'Mrs. Miniver' Expresses the Inspiring Strength and Dignity Of Ordinary Civilians Under Total War

This New York Times piece, written by Bosley Crowther right after the release of Mrs. Miniver in the United States and his subsequent review, describes the incredible success of the film in painting a portrait of wartime Britain as sympathetic and relatable. The article begins by claiming that “the most effective ‘special pleading’ possible is that which stimulates the emotions and quickens a response from the heart,” as well as the effectiveness of gaining sympathy and identifying the viewer’s own life with the suffering on-screen. Crowther continues by describing just how very well Mrs. Miniver has achieved this. The movie shows people in all walks of life, from the stationmaster to the local aristocracy and the Minivers in between, and according to the article, all people who “might as soon be you.”

The article addresses the claim that the film is “too narrow” to be relatable, meaning that the society portrayed is too idealized to be realistic. But Crowther argues against this, saying that the film is still moving to the average viewer. The idyllic village setting, he says, actually increases the poignancy of the film’s wartime tale, since showing “a sudden violent disruption of pleasant life” is more affecting to a peaceful America than showing a struggling society “handed even more woe” would be. Crowther is quick to remind us that the effectiveness of this tactic is not because of American indifference, but is due simply to dramatic value. Consequently, the film seems to be able to balance the relevance of the Minivers’ situation with their model pre-war lifestyle; the article takes both arguments for and against Mrs. Miniver’s realism, and relatability and shows how they have both been successfully used in gaining a nation’s compassion for a people enduring a war that America itself is not directly involved with on the homefront.

Crowther, Bosley. "'Mrs. Miniver' Expresses the Inspiring Strength and Dignity Of Ordinary Civilians Under Total War." The New York Times 14 June 1942.

' Mrs. Miniver,' Excellent Picture of England at War, Opens at the Music Hall -- 'Broadway,' With George Raft, at Capitol

This article, published in the New York Times on June 5th 1942, was the newspaper’s first review of the film adaptation of Mrs. Miniver. Bosley Crowther gives the film a glowing review, calling it “The finest film yet made about the present war, and a most exalting tribute to the British, who have taken it gallantly.” In this review, the film has proved to accomplish exactly what it has set out to do: giving a touching, human face to the British civilians suffering from the war. The review calls these citizens, embodied in the Miniver family, “front line fighters,” citing their courage as the “nation’s most vital strength.” The film impresses upon the viewers that it is common people as well as soldiers who are fighting this battle; if it was difficult before for the average American to relate to the fighting English, Mrs. Miniver, suggests Crowther, allows any peacefully-existing, middle-class American to imagine what it might be like if tragedy were to strike their own family. The review also seems praise the way in which the British family holds up to its hardships. Instead of being cloying, they are commendably strong and courageous – this is propaganda that doesn't appear to be forced upon the viewer by any government.

The film’s ties to Winston Churchill’s ideology are also mentioned. Mrs. Miniver was released on the two-year anniversary of Churchill’s famous “We shall never surrender” speech, and in the words of Crowther, “One seeing it can understand why there was no doubt in Churchill’s mind.” The film seems to have easily served a dose of strong political ideology within such a relatable, sympathy-evoking tale, combining affairs of state with a well-made, star-driven major studio picture. This praise-heavy review that immediately elicited so much support for the British, in a news source as influential as The New York Times, is a testimony to the film’s immense success as a propaganda piece.

Crowther, Bosley. "' Mrs. Miniver,' Excellent Picture of England at War, Opens at the Music Hall -- 'Broadway,' With George Raft, at Capitol." The New York Times 5 June 1942.

The French Through Their Films by Robin Buss

Buss, Robin. "La Regle de jeu/The Rule of the Game (1939)." The French Through Their Films. New York: Ungar, 1988: 55, 114.

In his book, Robin Buss analyzes several important French films and how they relate to the society they depict as well as the movements they were a part of. He remarks that Rules of the Game was initially met with indifference and not long after, critiqued and banned. Now, however, the film is revered as one of the greatest cinematic achievements of all time. Buss explains that this extremely quick change in preferences is representative of the rapid culture changes in the past half century, especially in French society, and more importantly, as a result of war. Buss also points out an extremely interesting symbol in Rules of the Game: Renoir's use of food. For instance, Octave's refusal of breakfast is considered a sign of distress. The very importance placed on food in the culture depicted by Renoir both helps audiences connect to the story and reveals a superficiality present in the customs of popular culture. Thus, the very technique Renoir uses to reach out to his audience also condemns the practices central to their daily lives.

Robin Buss' book is an overall filmography of early 20th century French cinema. It provides an interesting look at Rules of the Game by placing it in its historical context. Unlike many other sources, Buss's book shows Renoir's film as one of the many. Instead of being the sole topic of discussion, the film is juxtaposed with other important works of French cinema, some with very similar themes, and readers are able to assess the importance of Rules of the Game at a point 50 years after its release. Most interestingly, Buss offers an alternate topic of study for the film: the use of food as a symbol. Renoir's use of this symbol could have a two-fold purpose: the first to connect with his audience. Renoir expressed a deep desire to become one with the public and the use of such a communal symbol would have not only brought his audience together but also forged a bond between the audience and the characters. The second purpose, conversely, is to provide a critique of French culture. In this tumultuous, growingly amoral society, food is one of the only thing that still matters. Fulfilling both of these purposes, food is also shown as a connector between the ruling class and the servants. This aides both in drawing connections to unite French society but also, more subtly, in upholding a method of critique.

Hollywood as historian : American film in a cultural context

Hollywood as historian : American film in a cultural context / edited by Peter C. Rollins. 0813114861 : series Lexington, Ky. : University Press of Kentucky, c1983.

The chapter entitled “Fighting Words” discusses Charlie Chaplin’s intentions for his film “The Great Dictator”. The film was Chaplin’s first sound film. Not wanting to alter his classic silent ‘tramp’ character, Charlie found the opportunity in this entry into sound to preserve his beloved character and talk to his audience for the first time. “As Hitler I could harangue the crowds in jargon and talk all I wanted to,” wrote Charlie in his autobiography. “A Hitler story was an opportunity for burlesque and pantomime.” Charlie exposed Hynkel (representing Hitler) in exactly this fashion. For most of the film, Hynkel’s words amount to nothing more than gibberish. When the dictator speaks intelligibly, the audience still senses malevolent babble.

The chapter supports the thesis as it illustrates Chaplin’s intentions to mock Hitler his film. It also demonstrates the striking contrast between the dictator and the barber. The dictator appears foolish as a result of Chaplin’s work while the barber remains relatively silent and pure (until the end). After developing these distinct characters for two hours, Charlie utilizes his first sound film to let out his own voice in the final speech, bashing hate and calling the soldiers to unite in the name of democracy and peace.

Comic Mind: Comedy and the Movies.

Mast, Gerald. The Comic Mind: Comedy and the Movies. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1973.

In the Chapter “Chaplin: Sound Films”, Gerald Mast analyses a few of the comedic moments in Chaplin’s “The Great Dictator” and how this comedy effectively criticizes the Nazi regime. Mast compares Hynkel’s globe scene (see tag on World War II and the American Film) to the scene immediately following of the barber shaving a customer. Mast discusses the ridiculous slapstick nature of the globe scene and the fast yet precise nature of the shaving scene and illustrates the contrast between the dictators fixation on world domination to the barbers human work. Mast also refers to Hynkel’s ludicrous speeches in which the dictator flails his arms about wildly and barks so vehemently the microphone cracks and seems to melt in his hands. During these speeches, Hynkel pauses intermittently to pour water down his blazing throat and down his pants.

This chapter directly supports the thesis as it demonstrates how Chaplin utilizes slapstick comedy to attack the Nazi regime. The succession of the globe scene to the shaving scene demonstrates how the barber succeeds where the dictator fails. Additionally, the contrast is made more stiking as the barber succeeds in the shave using a sharp blade, while the dictator's dellusion of grandeur comes to a crashing halt as the globe of the world explodes in his face. Mast also conjectures the Hynkel’s “wet” speech scene reveals how Hynkel’s private parts are burning as much as his throat suggesting that the Nazi propaganda has more to do with sexual energy and gibberish than with meaningful ideas.

American cinema of the 1940s : themes and variations / edited by Wheeler Winston Dixon.

American cinema of the 1940s : themes and variations / edited by Wheeler Winston Dixon. 0813536995 (hardcover : alk. paper) series New Brunswick, N.J. : Rutgers University Press, c2006.
Call#: Van Pelt Library PN1993.5.U6 A8574 2006

As mentioned previously in this project, Gianos discusses how the United States isolationism during the late 1930’s permeated the national film industry. Wheeler addresses this issue further in the chapter entitled “Movies on the Edge of War” discussing how American filmmakers during this period scarcely addressed events in Europe. With regard to Chaplin, Wheeler states that “no film of this year more directly or undeniably references events in Europe than [The Great Dictator].” Wheeler illustrates how Hynkel’s unfathomable speech in the beginning of the film, with the ridiculous gestures that can only be associated with Nazi propaganda, alludes specifically to the 1933 and 1938 Nuremberg Rallies. In addition, Chaplin includes historical documentary footage depicting the persecution of the Jewish people. Chaplin was one of the first filmmakers to address these issues. Wheeler also addresses Chaplin’s mastery of easing his audience into this new variety of film through his archetypal elements of comedy. The opening scene when the barber attempts to dodge a missile that follows his every move is one such example of Chaplin’s classic comedy. Furthermore, Wheeler argues that Chaplin reinvigorates both the romantic comedy and message film by introducing such new conventions to these genres.

This chapter is relevant to the main argument as it demonstrates how Chaplin challenged the isolationist conventions of the United States film industry by addressing the events in Europe that other filmmaker chose not to tackle. Furthermore, we see how Chaplin’s classic physical comedy and sight gags get his message across by implementing familiar elements for his audience.

Indelible shadows : film and the Holocaust / Annette Insdorf.

Insdorf, Annette. Indelible shadows : film and the Holocaust 3rd ed. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge: 2003.

In the Chapter “Black Humor” Annette Insdorf discusses how the element of humor can be effectively utilized to bring illumination to the Holocaust that is not possible with a more serious approach. Insdorf analyses Hynkel’s grandiose speech scene in which he flails his arms about as he snarls wildly into the microphone. She notes the ubiquitous salutes that are reminiscent of the Nazi salutes. Hynkel seems to salute several times per minute, and the audience is equally as excessive with their salutes. Even the statues, including the conventionally armless Venus de Milo, salute. Insdorf points out that these basic sight gags not only amuse the audience but also serve a deeper purpose in suggesting that the art and culture in Germany has been polluted into the Nazi image. Insdorf also recognizes Chaplin’s clever use of the double cross to represent the swastika throughout the film. She comments that the double cross symbol is “an all-too-perfect mark for what Hitler was doing to Germany”.

This chapter directly supports the thesis as it demonstrates how Chaplin effectively uses humor to criticize the Nazi regime. The reshaped statues are an exceptional example of Chaplin’s skill in demonstrating the pollution of the Third Reich on all aspects of German life. Chaplin masterfully deforms the Nazi swastika into a double cross. This use of a switched object indicates Hitler’s betrayal of Germany.

Is Life Beautiful? Can the Shoah Be Funny? Some Thoughts on Recent and Older Films

Gilman, Sander. "Is Life Beautiful? Can the Shoah Be Funny? Some Thoughts on Recent and Older Films". Critical Inquiry, Vol. 26 No. 2. (Winter, 2000): 279-30.

There has been a good deal of debate regarding how filmmakers and other artists should represent the Shoah (Holocaust). In this article, Sander Gilman discusses how the Shoah has been represented in the arts, focusing on comedy and film. Charlie Chaplin’s film “The Great Dictator” uses comedy to attack the Third Reich and to represent the beginnings of the Shoah. Gilman asks whether the terror during of the Shoah and the Nazi regime can be understood through such comedy. “The Great Dictator” was one of the first comic films to deal with the Nazis and their treatment of the Jews. While the film touches on the initial stages of the Shoah, it was made before the real horror and genocide began; the satire’s main target is the Nazi Regime. Gilman asserts that laughter is appropriate in films like “The Great Dictator” that deal with the Nazi regime as the enemy, leaving out the horrors of the Holocaust. In effect, this targeted treatment of the regime assures the viewer that they are stronger than the Nazis.

This article agrees with the thesis as it argues that the use of comedy in “The Great Dictator” effectively undermines the Nazi regime. More than that, Gilman addresses one of the principal criticisms of the film, namely the incompatibility of laughter and the events of the Holocaust. Critics often claim that the use of comedy in the film lessens the horrors that took place. Viewing “The Great Dictator” today may give us this impression. However, as Gilman discusses, Chaplin was ignorant of the extent of Nazi terror simply because the film was produced pre-Shoah. Indeed, post World War II, Chaplin asserted that “had I known of the actual horrors of the German concentration camps, I could not have made The Great Dictator; I could not have made fun of the homicidal insanity of the Nazis.” In the historical context of the film’s production, the film accurately and effectively utilizes laughter to challenge the Third Reich.

Disney Cartoons using Propaganda during WWII

Thesis: How did Walt Disney