Summary:

    Eisenstein’s short article addresses the issue of subject matter in the movie Alexander Nevsky. As the title suggests, Eisenstein vehemently argues that throughout the entire production of the movie, the slogan “patriotism” was “constantly before me and before our entire group, during the shots, during the sound recordings and during the cutting” (398). He also asserts that Communism, or the Communist Party is the guardian of national identity, national independence and true patriotism throughout the world. He links the Teutonic and Livonian knights that invaded Russia in the 13th century to contemporary fascists in the Germany and draws metaphors between the specific historic epoch depicted in Alexander Nevsky and the perils of Hitler’s rising aggression in the late 1930s, only to triumphantly affirm that Communism will prevail against all enemies, since the struggle for the ideal of fairness, freedom and national rights derives its moral from the Soviet Union.

Evaluation & Analysis:

    From an artistic perspective, this article is totally irrelevant because it doesn’t elaborate on any cinematic theories nor does it scrutinize film’s form or content, and even if it does interpret its content in some fashion, it is obvious from the beginning that we are dealing with the communist propaganda of Socialist Realism, which automatically renders any artistic reading of this article invalid. Nor does the document offer any details on the collaboration activities between Eisenstein and Prokofiev. However, this article is a showcase of the Communist Party’s absolute control over the realm of art and from a historical perspective, it is serves as a practical demonstration how the Party extolled the doctrine of Socialist Realism as the prescribed art form for Soviet writers, artists and film-makers, starting in the early 1930s. Despite the fact that Eisenstein used his first sound film to illustrate his theories on the use of sound and the cooperation with Prokofiev led to production of a magnificent score, by publishing a political propaganda article of this kind, Eisenstein himself undermines the aesthetic value of his own film. Since the Socialist Realism was the only accepted form of art in the Soviet Union, this article also rises an important question – does Prokofiev’s and (especially) Eisenstein’s political subservience to Stalin deny these artists their positions as one of the great artists of the 20th century? And how does the doctrinaire nature of Alexander Nevsky affect the artistic values of the film and its musical score?

 

• Chambers, Whittaker "The New Pictures." TIME Magazine. Monday Feb. 12, 1940.

In a famous review of The Grapes of Wrath, then editor of TIME Magazine Whittaker Chambers defiantly raves about the film. A former Communist party member and Soviet spy, Whitaker ended up defecting from the party and becoming one of communism’s most notorious and outspoken opponents. After breaking ties with the Communist party in 1938, Whittaker went on to become an editor of TIME.

It is interesting to note that Whittaker mentions a brief, albeit scathing criticism of Steinbeck’s original book version of The Grapes of Wrath. Whittaker refers to the Pulitzer Prize winning novel as “propaganda” and containing “phony pathos.” Whittaker goes on to qualify that the type of person who is to gain the most enjoyment from observing The Grapes of Wrath is the one who enjoys “seeing a picture for picture’s sake.” Whittaker claims that The Grapes of Wrath could quite possibly be “the best picture ever made from a so-so book.”

Whittaker mentions that the book translates so effectively to film for a couple of reasons: “credit belongs accidentally to censorship and the camera.” The self-censorship of the Production Code Administration is namely what Whitaker is alluding to here. The editorial criticisms of the American economic system made by Steinbeck are also eliminated from the picture. What remains is an authentic tale of a U.S. farming family. “They wander, they suffer, but they endure.”

This article is highly significant because it not only points out the thematic difference that exists between Steinbeck’s book and Ford’s film, but it also provides a historical context. The P.C.A. at least to some extent allowed The Grapes of Wrath to become a film so long as the theme shifted toward a positivist one. There could not simply be a thrashing of the economic conditions in Great Depression America. Instead, it was necessary to instill some sort of hope in the storyline which culminates in the form of an enduring family struggle.

    In this article, Hoakes explains that It’s a Wonderful Life was one of the eight movies in 1947 that the FBI investigated for subversive and communist undertones. The three categories that determine a subversive film were:
        I. Values or institutions judged to be particularly American are smeared or presented as evil in a movie.
        II. Values or institutions deemed to be particularly anti-American or pro-Communist are glorified in a movie.
        III. Casual references to current events are made that either belittle American political institutions or promote the Communist party line.
The FBI claimed that It’s a Wonderful Life contained elements of the first two categories. As the film demonizes Potter and discredits the banking system, it violates category I. As the rights of the common man are glorified and defended, it violates category II. However, Noakes explains that these two claims are not accurate. The film does not negatively portray capitalism; it depicts two forms of capitalism (Bailey and Potter) and supports the version that focuses on small business and the working class. Focusing on the working class, however, does not make it a communist film. Instead it focuses on the home owning rights of the working class, a strictly capitalist belief.
    This article is notable because it stresses George Bailey’s positive influence in his community. He is practicing a more proper and humane form of capitalism. While there are those that view Potter and big business as the basis of American capitalism, Bailey and Capra remind the viewer that the common man is equally important to the running of the economy. The film calls for neither socialism nor communism. Bailey acts out of his own charitable will to help individuals afford a home. In doing so, he ensures that there will be happy customers and happy workers in the economy.

Noakes, John A. "Bankers and Common Men in Bedford Falls: How the FBI Determined That 'It's a Wonderful Life' Was a Subversive Movie." Film History 10.3, The Cold War and the Movies (1998), pp. 311-319

JSTOR keyword: 'it's a wonderful life' - first document

Buchsbaum, Jonathan. "Toward Victory: Left Film in France, 1930-35." Cinema Journal 25.3 (1986): 22-52.

In this article, Jonathan Buchsbaum engages in a discussion of the Popular Front in 1930s France. He lists the various individual and group involvement with the movement and how it changed over the course of a few years. Buchsbaum discusses the French Community Party and the lax policies that they advocated. This party also placed little restrictions over film and never actively commissioned the production of propaganda films, much unlike similar Soviet parties of the time. He spends some time talking about the dramatic Soviet push for Communist propaganda as well as the influence of Vertov and Eiseinstein on film all over the world but seems to appreciate the French resistance to the dramatically confining policies enforced by the Soviets. Buchsbaum discusses the election of a socialist government in France in 1936 and all of the views and ideals that shifted as a result of this dramatic political change. Buchbaum's article provides a detailed, accurate representation of the social, cultural, political, and economic atmosphere during the time of Renoir's reign of king of film. He also provides a trajectory path for readers to understand what these changes mean to the rest of the world and how it would make an impact for years to come.

Buchsbaum's article provides an excellent history of left film in France prior to Rules of the Game. It also gives a very accurate showing of the political strife and cultural fears present in the 1930s. This discussion of communism and the Red Scare helps in understanding Jean Renoir's influences as well as the public's extremely negative reaction to the film: both result from fear. Buchsbaum explains that it was actually a trend in 1930s French cinema to include political themes in a film. This aspect provides a new, interesting look at Renoir's use of politics in Rules of the Game not previously considered by my other sources: was Renoir's creative Popular Front film actually a mere attempt for commercial success? It is a possibility. Though Buchsbaum goes on to describe an intense, fearful, uncertain political and cultural atmosphere that would have been near impossible for any filmmaker to ignore. This article is pivotal in understanding the political climate as well as previous works that would have greatly inspired Renoir and played a huge role in determining his film's reception.

Singer, Irving. "Jean Renoir." Three Philosophical Filmmakers: Hitchcock, Welles, Renoir. Palatino: MIT Press, 2004: 146-219.

Irving Singer holds the belief that each of Renoir's films led him on a path to discovery of both the culture around him and himself. He believes that Renoir's character of Octave in Rules of the Game is actually a self-representation: that Renoir desired to play himself, someone that "lost contact with the public" (149). Octave is also shown as slightly inept and mismanaged, revealing Renoir's attempt to level and connect with the public. Singer includes a comment made by Renoir stating that he's only ever "shot one film," maintaining the belief that Renoir strived to provide an accurate representation of French society, even when this meant he must display his views in contrast with those of the general public (147). Singer remarks, however, that Renoir so wished to connect with his audience, with his society, that he became almost desperate to achieve contact and that this desperation led to Renoir's near destruction of Rules of the Game when he continually cut out pieces of the film that may have offended audiences. Singer believes that, in the years leading up to WWII, Renoir's main goal in his filmmaking was to explore how people relate to each other, to nature, and to technology. Singer also expresses the belief that Renoir drew alot from Hinduism, explaining the filmmaker's desire to contrast the differences between his character's spiritual and material lives, a central theme in Rules of the Game.

Singer's chapter on Renoir provides a very interesting take on the filmmaker and his works. It is clear, especially after reading this work, that Jean Renoir was on a quest for truth, using film as a tool to capture society in its most realistic form. Rules of the Game was greatly influenced by the fact that Renoir wished to accurately depict French society though he, of course, was somewhat blinded by his own middle-class beliefs and tendencies. For instance, Renoir criticizes the bourgeios and the servants equally, as he, himself, stood in the middle ground, exempt from criticism. Renoir, however, is nowhere near self-praising; instead, the film functions somewhat as an autobiography with Renoir playing the role of Octave, his on-screen representation. Both lament that they have lost contact with the public. This comment is shown to be almost comically, though paradoxically, true: Renoir had never expected such a negative response from his audience. Up until this point, Renoir's works were, for the most part, celebrated by French society. The point at which he became public about his concerns of losing emotional and intellectual touch with the people, his work invokes a disastrous result and Renoir physically disconnects from his people by fleeing the country. This work also provides a very interesting look at another of Renoir's influences: religion, describing how the beliefs of Hinduism propelled him on his quest for turth amidst spiritual and material confusion.

Bergan, Ronald. "Everyone Has His Reasons." Jean Renoir: Projections of Paradise. Woodstock: The Overlook Press, 1994: 196-206.

In this chapter, Ronald Bergan goes into detail on Jean Renoir's influences for Rules of the Game. For starters, he explains that Renoir kept several elements from the original, Les Caprices de Marianne. Before writing his script, Renoir also drew from other Musset works as well as French baroque music. Bergan believes that these sources, as well as the political events surrounding Renoir, allowed him to create such a unique style in Rules of the Game - one that neatly combined "melodrama and farce" (198). Bergan emphasizes the importance of the hunting scene in the film which shows the "callous cruelty of the guests" and provides the most explicitly violent critique of French bourgeois society (203). Bergan makes a point to note the animosity between (and among) both the upper and lower classes as the solidarity of the Popular Front is now gone. While the prejudice and snobbery of the ruling class is blatantly on display, their critiqued behaviors are echoed by their servants. Bergan also explains Renoir's use of deep-focused lenses, stating that such far-reaching shots were necessary to gather all of the actions taking place in such a dynamic ensemble production. Quick shots and heavy editing would simply not show the interworkings of society that the deep, long shots are capable of. Bergan concludes his chapter by providing some explanation for the harsh critiques that Rules of the Game received by the public upon its release: at the time, Renoir was a known supporter of the Communist Party. Also, his casting provoked "right-wing, anti-semitic and xenophobic emotions" (205).

This article is extremely interesting as Ronald Bergan is able to list several stylistic influences on Renoir in writing Rules of the Game. Instead of focusing on the thematic influences such as the Munich agreement, as other critics have done, Bergan is able to hone in on specific tricks peformed by Renoir, often unorthodox, to inspire his story, such as listening to Baroque music. This offers an alternate view of Jean Renoir in which he is drawing from each and every source in his life to fuel a powerfully creative, though extremely accurate, tale of the world around him. Bergan also details the remarkable accomplishment of, in essence, creating the long shot in Rules of the Game. This huge triumph is usually overshadowed by the negative French public opinion of the film. Bergan, however, explains several concrete reasons as to why the film was met with such criticism by initial audiences. Firstly, Renoir's ties with the Communist Party would have pitted a great deal of Frenchmen against him from the start, especially after observing somet type of critique of French society. Fear of communism, especially in the current situation in Europe, could have easily allowed Rules of the Game to come off as Jean Renoir's attempt at French communist propaganda. Also, the stars of his film included a Jewish man and an Austrian woman, clearly stirring the hatred of the prejudiced and also confusing the public, in such a time of national fragility, that Renoir would even think of using possible 'enemies' to portray the French, especially in a critique.

Bergstrom, Janet. "Jean Renoir's Return to France." Poetics Today 17.3, Creativity and Exile: European/American Perspectives I (1996): 453-89.

In this article, Janet Bergstrom strives to determine the reason behind Renoir's long exile from France after World War II as well as his abandonment of French realist style. After the bitter failure of Rules of the Game in 1939, Renoir fled to the United States where he would continue to make Hollywood films, deserting his country (and perhaps morals, ideals, and sense of self) for good. After WWII, Renoir became somewhat of a sellout, conforming to Hollywood styles and expectations. Renoir's dramatically different approach to filmmaking, however, hindered him from achieving real commercial success in Hollywood, almost hinting that Renoir could not escape the French Realism that he worked so hard to define. Bergstrom also describes Renoir's alliances with the Communist Party and how this may have hurt Rules of the Game's success in prewar France. She also examines the "betrayal" felt by many of Renoir's fans, that their French hero had deserted them (456); Renoir, however, considered himself a "citizen of the world" that followed his instinct wherever it took him (458). Bergstrom also examines the depression that overtook Renoir upon the failure of his most-loved film. It is impossible to ascertain the truth behind Renoir's motives through mere speculation, though the betrayal that Renoir himself would have felt by the angry French audiences after the release of Rules of the Game is surely necessary to take into account.

This article is extremely helpful in understanding the impact that Rules of the Game initially had on the French people and why Renoir was so changed by it. Bergstrom provides a great deal of personal information about the life of Jean Renoir before, during, and after the creation of Rules of the Game. Knowing where Renoir was, mentally and politically, at the release of the film greatly aides in understanding his extreme reaction. Rules of the Game was Renoir's first real chance to express himself freely, uninhibited by social restraint or fears. He felt that he was led by his instinct and was very happy with the work he had created. He took offense when the French public took so negatively to Rules of the Game; he was proud of his work and expected his countrymen to share in the sentiment. Upon the realization that his 'baby' was a failure, Renoir felt the need to flee. This article really puts into perspective the importance of this film to Renoir and provides legitimate reasons for his seemingly-extreme reaction.

Armes, Roy. "The Paradoxes of French Realism." French Cinema. New York: Oxford University Press, 1985: 86-108.

Roy Armes takes a slightly different approach to analyzing Rules of the Game and the works of Renoir than my other sources. He starts off by saying that Renoir's works are not united by a common style. He, instead, characterizes Renoir's films as existing between contradictory impulses, in a state of tension. He suggests viewing and analayzing each of Renoir's films separately, each in its own contemporary setting. Armes believes this is necessary as Renoir proved to be greatly influenced by each shift, however miniscule, within French society before WWII. Each major political event in the European world of the 1930s can be seen as part of one of Jean Renoir's films. Armes acclaims Rules of the Game as Renoir's most impulsive, uninhibited work that toys with reality and illusion and also provides a "self-portrait of rare depth" (107). Armes describes the theatrical techniques used by Renoir and the 'dramatic fantasy' that he creates by forming several 'play within a play' structures. Armes believes that each pivotal moment in the film arises when two incongruously linked characters are brought together - a technique that both readily induces dramatic conflict within the film and obviously mirrors conflict within society, providing a clear juxtaposition to the imposing 2nd World War.

This article provides a different perspective from which to view the film. Unlike many other critics that group Renoir's films together as a continuous social critique, Roy Armes underlines the importance of viewing each film separately. If Renoir were truly sensitive to changes in French culture, each of his films would embody a different viewpoint and radiate an entirely different spirit. It is very important, as Armes suggests, to analyze each film in its own contemporary setting. Thus, Rules of the Game should not be immediately compared to Renoir's other works as it often is. Armes also brings up the possibility that the film was, for Renoir, something of a self portrait. This provides countless new options for viewing the film and thus, Jean Renoir. For instance, we can learn alot about Renoir and his intentions by studying the character of Octave. Paradoxically, watching the film and analyzing the character will help viewers better understand the filmmaker and, thus, his intentions with the film. The article also suggests that Renoir uses a 'dramatic fantasy' technique in order to artfully bury his political beliefs in a complicated web of relationships. Knowing this technique helps one extract Renoir's intended messages from the film.

 

Bergstrom, Janet. "Jean Renoir's Return to France." Poetics Today 17.3, Creativity and Exile: European/American Perspectives I (1996): 453-89.

Bergstrom delves into the question of why Jean Renoir did not return to France following World War II. After directing La Règle du jeu in 1939, Renoir fled to the United States, where he resided until his death. Many French citizens and critics like André Bazin considered this a traitorous act, as all other French filmmakers who had fled to the United States had returned after the War. Especially in light of the fact that Jean Renoir had almost single-handedly molded the French poetic realist genre that was so characteristic of the pre-War time period, it seemed even more blasphemous that he would not return to his native homeland. Bergstrom also discusses a growing disparity between Renoir’s films before and after World War II. Pre-War films distinctly follow a realist style, whereas post-War films have clearly yielded to Hollywood’s influences and expectations. For this reason, it seems after World War II, Renoir fit neither French film style nor American film style, and was some awkward amalgamation of the two.

Bergstrom’s analysis of Renoir’s career before and after World War II is fascinating and quite relevant to my thesis. Her description of not only Renoir’s personal life, such as his association with communists through his wife Marguerite Houllé and his writing for the communist publication Ce soir, but also the political events of the time reveal the changes in the environment in which he lived in a span of decades. Bergstrom also mentions the process and history of creating La Règle du jeu, including Renoir’s association with various other French filmmakers and his philosophical allegiances to writers like Émile Zola. In particular, it is interesting to note Bergstrom’s argument that La Règle du jeu’s failure fueled Renoir’s reluctance to return to France after the War.

Buchsbaum, Jonathan. "Toward Victory: Left Film in France, 1930-35." Cinema Journal 25.3 (1986): 22-52.

Buchsbaum’s article outlines artists’ and intellectuals’ involvement with the popular front in France in the 1930s. Especially after the French elected their first socialist government in 1936, the changed politics of the time began to reflect changing views of the people and a shift in French culture. Buchsbaum notes that interestingly, despite cues from Soviets, the French Communist Party (PCF) did not actively seek to create propaganda films. Perhaps La Crise in 1931 was the closest, by portraying the benefits of pacifism and the brutality of war. Despite the Comintern’s consistent utilization of film and literature to promote the values of communism, the popularity of Soviet films by Eisenstein and Vertov, and the formation of Le groupe Octobre, the PCF did not seem to follow suit to the extent it could have.

Buchsbaum argues that “film sought to make interventions in the immediate political reality of the time” (22). His article is applicable to my thesis for its thorough discussion of the political situation of the time period in which Renoir created La Règle du jeu. There was truly a development of a left film culture in France, even though it may not have been taken to the clear extent of Soviet propaganda film during the same era. By analyzing the transition of French cinema culture and developments in film trends in the 1930s, Buchsbaum emphasizes the radical role of politics in filmmaking. Communism was widespread and an increasingly popular ideology, while fascism, its rival ideology, was also gaining power in countries like Germany. Though Buchsbaum only briefly mentions Renoir once, his article is paramount to understanding the political and social atmosphere of the time.

Faulkner, Christopher, and Jean Renoir. "Jean Renoir Addresses the League of American Writers." Film History 8.1, Cinema and Nation (1996): 64-71.

Faulkner’s commentary in combination with Renoir’s own address to the League of American Writers offers insight into the political ideologies of the filmmaker. Faulkner begins by describing the political atmosphere of the era and the environment in which Renoir gave his 1943 speech. The League of American Writers (LAW) was an organization of left-leaning intellectuals who gathered in blatant censure of fascism. LAW was considered to be a key player in the American popular front alliance. Renoir’s involvement with the organization is testament not only to his political beliefs but also reveals the many artists and intellectuals he was associated with. These individuals had likely great influences on the filmmaker. For example, Renoir collaborated with Dudley Nichols on This Land is Mine in 1943, which revealed both individuals’ opinions on working class struggles and criticisms of fascism. Renoir’s speech to LAW would, in fact, draw parallels from dialogue in this film.

Renoir’s speech would be a great complement to my thesis because it is clearly a description of the filmmaker’s political views. It is clear that he was extremely left-leaning in ideology, associated with communists and other liberal thinkers, and made a point to fight back against the fascist regimes that were gaining power in the 1930s and 1940s. Renoir was also extremely nationalist and prideful of his home country of France. He encouraged solidarity and the need to love fellow citizens in order to love citizens of other nations. Faulkner’s discussion of Renoir’s politics brings to light the important role the political environment of the 1930s and 1940s played in the creation of Renoir’s films. His discussion of Renoir’s attitudes towards the interplay of politics and art is equally significant and relevant to my argument.

Blog, Forum, and Wiki about Capital Volume 1

    In the Introduction of Early Cold War Spies, authors Haynes and Klehr describe the atmosphere of the early Cold War period when Soviets in United States became the most widespread concern for the American public. During this time domestic security became the foremost issue for Americans. This introduction gives a brief synopsis of the early Cold War spy trials such as the Elizabeth Bentley trial of 1948, the 1945 trial of Amerasia and Igor Gouzenko, and the 1962 trial of Robert Soblen. However, as they describe this "witch-hunt" for communists, Haynes and Klehr also make clear the point that the fear of Communism was nothing new and that it was not brought on solely by McCarthy, although he did publicize his quest to smoke out every communist in the country.

    This concise explanation of the politics and environment in the early years of the Cold War provides the essential details necessary to contextualize the story of The Manchurian Candidate. Without historical context, the film would not have the same impact. In addition, knowledge of these early spy trials may have provided author Condon (author of the novel The Manchurian Candidate published in 1959) with some inspiration for the tale of Raymond Shaw. While there is never a trial in The Manchurian Candidate, it is possible that Condon looked at these people on trial and others as the real Manchurian Candidates.  

    In this section of her chapter "‘Pink-Nosed Gremlins' to Reluctant Regulators" entitled "Communism on Radio and Television," author Susan Brinson gives a brief but comprehensive explanation of communist material on radio and television. She describes the flood of letters sent to the FCC (Federal Communications Commission) in the 1940s regarding the content of broadcasts. Brinson also explains how censorship of communists increased as the nation moved into the 1950s. This section also describes the fear of "reds in the living room" and a short, but valuable synopsis of Edward R. Murrow's 1954 episode of See It Now during which he so famously criticized Senator McCarthy.

    Throughout The Manchurian Candidate the idea of public image and the media is very important but rarely explicitly discussed. Mrs. Iselin constantly critiques her husband and gives him orders about how to act when on camera and exactly what to say. While it is not often mentioned in the film, the concept of the FCC and the publicity surrounding the search for communists in the government, gives interesting depth to the film. The extent to which McCarthy used the media as a tool to frighten the American public is not fully portrayed in the film outside of a few scenes where the camera cuts between Iselin himself and his image on a television screen. In The Manchurian Candidate it is difficult to completely separate the character of Senator John Iselin and Senator Joseph McCarthy; however, Susan Brinson's piece explains how Senator McCarthy (and therefore his caricature, Senator John Iselin) used the media in his hunt for members of the Communist party.

    In this chapter of his book, The Manchurian Candidate, Greil Marcus gives a brief summary of the plot of the film and proceeds to make the argument that the plot of the film is merely an excuse for the "pleasure of its violence." Marcus also discusses instances in the film where while on the surface the focus is the conspiracy, much of the viewer's attention is redirected in light of the ridiculous reactions of various characters. He, in fact, mildly criticizes the plausibility of such things being said in reality. Marcus spends a great deal of time discussing this fact in relation to the press conference scene in the film where Marco serves as a public relations officer for the army. Also discussed within this chapter are the similarities and parallels between the assassinations of the Iselins to the assassination of President John F. Kennedy. Marcus also introduces various differences and similarities between the John Frankenheimmer film version of the Manchurian Candidate (1962) and the original novel written by Richard Condon in 1959. In addition to the comparison between various versions of this story, Marcus also broaches the subject of the morality of the characters and the viewer's perception of these mores. The author concludes this chapter with a proposition, that perhaps The Manchurian Candidate and the themes it discusses are more relevant now than they were forty years ago.

    In relation to the film, The Manchurian Candidate, directed by John Frankenheimmer, Greil Marcus gives an ample discussion regarding various themes in the film; however, he fails to elaborate sufficiently on these ideas to really give the reader a comprehensive and full understanding of his meaning. His description and discussion of the press conference scene in which Marco serves as a public relations assistant to the secretary of defense is especially vivid and insightful. The multiple views of Iselin in the screen (via the television monitor in screen and various other angles) highlight the power of the media and introduce a strong caricature of Senator Joseph R. McCarthy in the character of Senator John Y. Iselin. Marcus's insight to the "epistemological violence" of the scene and the actions and reactions of the characters allow a new perception of this scene, as a sort of idealized situation where politicians tell the truth and speak with utter candor, as the Secretary of Defense does.

    In Lifton's chapter of Thought Reform and the Psychology of Totalism titled "What is ‘Brainwashing'?" he describes the origins of the term "brainwashing" which originated from the phrase hsi nao, which literally translates as "wash brain." In the beginning the term was used solely as a description of the Chinese "indoctrination process"; however, as Lifton illustrates, the term soon came to be more generally linked with communism. Lifton continues on to define brainwashing and what the process entails (i.e. total control of another's mind). He also clearly outlines the two basic elements of "thought reform" (another term for brainwashing): confession and re-education.

    Robert J. Lifton's analysis of the process and elements of brainwashing provide valuable insight into John Frankenheimmer's 1962 film The Manchurian Candidate. While it is not explicitly shown in the film, it is understood that the soldiers have undergone extensive indoctrination during their imprisonment. The film only shows them after they have been brainwashed; however, understanding the basic elements of brainwashing helps the viewer to somewhat comprehend the mental trauma endured by the characters and subsequently, their actions.

    In David Seed's discussion of The Manchurian Candidate, he examines the reality and plausibility of the brainwashing of Raymond Shaw, Major Marco, and the other soldiers. He discusses the real life POW indoctrination camps in Manchuria and Korea that were used for "re-education" and "interrogation" along the Yalu River. Seed also discusses the similarities of the film to the novel written by Richard Condon in 1959. Seed also examines the use of the media as a method of indoctrination or brainwashing in the case of the Iselins.

    This chapter allows a viewer of the film to have knowledge of the real life context of the brainwashing of POWs during the Korean War. Seed also raises the point that there are distinct similarities between The Manchurian Candidate and the assassination of President John F. Kennedy in 1963. He describes it as "life realizing art" and although it has been concluded that Lee Harvey Oswald acted alone, it was also confirmed that he had seen the film. While it is unlikely that this film was the sole motivation for Oswald's actions, there is no way to measure the impact of the film on Oswald or whether or not he was brainwashed. Seed's explanation of The Manchurian Candidate allows a viewer of the film to better understand the psychology of a "superspy," or a spy who has layered personalities that can be activated by a sort of trigger, as with Raymond-"why don't you pass the time by playing a little solitaire?" and then the appearance of a queen of diamonds. Overall, Seed's analysis provides a more in depth glimpse into the character of Raymond Shaw and his brainwashing.

    This chapter from Jacobsen and González's book What Have They Built You to Do? discusses the character of Johnny Iselin as a "McCarthy type"-a representation of Senator Joseph McCarthy to the extreme. They further explain that The Manchurian Candidate was one of the first full-fledged satires of Senator McCarthy and demonstrate how McCarthy was a "natural target for anyone wishing to lampoon the politics of peril." (85) The authors also explain the importance of the timing of the film's release: because The Manchurian Candidate was released eight years after the Army-McCarthy hearings, McCarthy was seen as a sort of tragic joke, thus, Senator Iselin was able to be made out as the comic relief of the film, as a caricature of McCarthy.

    Jacobsen and González describe the "over the top" communism of The Manchurian Candidate as a bit "campy." This chapter of their book is especially helpful in explaining the character of Senator John Iselin and providing a basis for further exploration of the character as more than just a representation of McCarthy. The comedy in the film revolves for the most part around Senator Iselin and as these comic moments are few and far between in the film, it is important to understand their significance. The Manchurian Candidate satirically uses these comic moments with Iselin to parody McCarthy and to emphasize the ridiculousness of his actions and accusations.