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Jessica Brent makes the claim that with the advent of sound, Hitchcock was able to marginalize the feminine image. The sound age forced a change in aesthetic and style with the feminine being destroyed and replaced with the investigative gaze. She asserts that the visual pleasure beyond the gaze is removed from Hitchcock's work. Women and feminine figures are forced into the narrative demands of the male eye.

On one hand, I'm still not entirely convinced of this argument or completely sure of its meaning. However, I think that scene in which Alice kills Crewe escapes Brent's interpretation should it be true. Alice kills Crewe behind a curtain, away from the eyes of the portraits and the audience. The only male eyes that see her are Crewe's and she is usurping his position. Therefore, at the crucial moment of the film where Alice asserts herself and confronts her anxieties, she is separate from any narrative demands that might be forced upon her.

Bobo, Jacqueline. “The Color Purple: Black Women as Cultural Readers.” Female Spectators: Looking at Film and Television. Ed. E. Deidre Pribram. London: Verso, 1988. 90-109.

This chapter discusses black women as audience members and cultural consumers of the film The Color Purple.  As Bobo states, her aim is “to examine the way in which a specific audience [black women] creates meaning from a mainstream text [The Color Purple] and uses the reconstructed meaning to empower themselves and their social group.”  Although the film predominately features black women, criticism, reviews, and discourse concerning the film did not include the voices of black women.  Bobo counters this problem by interviewing average black women, as an ‘interpretive community,’ and recording their reactions to the film.  Through her research, Bobo discovered that black women oftentimes have responses to texts that differ from those of other audiences, including mainstream film critics. By watching these films and discussing them with each other, the women Bobo interviewed negotiate new interpretations of the texts, which in many cases stand at odds with dominant or conventional readings.

Through this text, Bobo makes evident that African-American women, as a distinct interpretive community, view cultural products, specifically film, in a unique way.  Her argument could be used for the movie Imitation of Life, in which the roles of the black women are limited, just as in The Color Purple. Although the black women characters are marginalized, black female spectators are still able to create meaning from the film and interpret it as readers using the “oppositional gaze.”  Working together as an interpretive community, black women can engage in the text and produce meanings in ways that have potential for empowerment. 

Bogle, Donald. “Imitation of Life: Mother Knows Best.” Toms, Coons, Mulattoes, and Bucks: An Interpretive History of Blacks in American Films, New York: The Continuum International Publishing Group, Inc., 2001. 57-60.

This portion of Donald Bogle’s Toms, Coons, Mulattoes, and Buck: An Interpretive History of Blacks in American Films offers a detailed synopsis of Imitation of Life. Bogle discuses the humanization of the Negro servant within the film. Although the black woman was a servant, she was imbued with dignity.  On the surface, the film appears to be a simple tale of motherly love and motherly woes; however, beneath lies, according to Bogle, “a conscious apotheosis of the tom spirit and an unconsciously bitter comment on race relations in America.” Louise Beavers’ Delilah is a combination of tom and mammy and her daughter, Peola, is the subversive tragic mulatto figure, not wanting to be white, but wanting the same things in life as white people. 

This reading offers a unique perspective and interpretation of the film.  Contrary to many other readings, some of which are cited in this annotated bibliography, Bogle believes that the racial theme is the most significant of the film.  He argues that the humanization of Beavers, which is a result of a new social consciousness that had infiltrated the motion picture industry after Roosevelt’s election and the end of the Depression, the film portrays the modern black woman, although she is still a servant. From Bogle’s piece, it can be argued that black female spectators are able to identify with the black character in this mainstream film; thus, the viewer des not need to use her “oppositional gaze.”

Willis, James and Susan Silby.  “Self, Surveillance, and Society.”  The Sociological Quarterly 43.3 (2002): 439-45.

            This journal entry is a discussion of the fictional case study of Tom Voire, written by Gary T. Marx.  The essay essentially summarizes Marx’s story and then explains the themes and conclusions that can be drawn from the piece.  Tom Voire is depicted as a “Peeping Tom,” a “law-abiding and hard-working citizen” who has a strong penchant for sexual voyeurism that ultimately lands him in jail and under psychological scrutiny.  Beginning by video-taping his sexual encounters, Tom advances to deeper levels of peeping, watching videos of women changing in department stores, and ultimately creating a “technologically composed” girlfriend.  Analysis of Tom’s case focuses on several key issues.  First of all, Tom brings forth important ideas about gender discrimination in conjunction with voyeurism.  Additionally, Tom’s individuality—his lack of physical connection with the women he is watching—leads to a question of the damage and moral wrong present in this form of voyeuristic pleasure.  And finally, the detailed nature of the case study critiques the social standards that allow “experts” to delve so deeply into another person’s life with complete moral autonomy.

            The case of Tom Voire, and the themes that Willis and Silby introduce, can be appropriately applied to Rear Window.  Technology, for instance, is an important parallel between the two works.  Tom’s digital prowess gives him an advantage in completing his voyeuristic fantasies, just as Jeff’s camera equipment gives him an unrivaled view into the life of his neighbors.  The theme of social morality also applies to both works.  Just because Jeff’s intentions are good in spying on Thorwald and “Miss Lonely Hearts,” does that earn him the right to violate their personal privacy?  This idea continues in examining Jeff’s deeper motivations.  Both Tom and Jeff offer numerous excuses for delving into the private lives of others, and it is easy to see how both are covering up their hidden immoral desires to view what society forbids.  Contrasts between Jeff and Tom, as well as Jeff and Tom’s therapists, also provide various ideas of how voyeurism should be addressed by our society.

Keller, Susan Jo.  "Patriot Act Sections on Search and Surveillance Are Ruled Unconstitutional."  The New York Times 27 Sept. 2007: A29.

            This article from The New York Times announces that a section of the Patriot Act dealing with search and surveillance, an act initiated by Congress to combat terrorism, was ruled unconstitutional by a federal judge in Oregon.  The article describes how this decision came about after a deadly terrorist bombing in Spain in March 2004.  Brandon Mayfield, a lawyer in the child custody case of a man convicted of conspiring with al Qaeda, is also an Islamic convert, and was a major suspect in the attack.  The federal government performed extensive surveillance on him and his family, and placed him in jail for two weeks before the case was thrown out.  After a $2 million legal settlement, Mayfield sued the government, resulting in the decision rendered by Judge Anne L. Aiken, which overturned parts of the Patriot Act that infringed upon the 4^th amendment.  Quotations from Judge Aiken and the other individuals involved in the case accent the idea that the Patriot Act disrupts the balance between civil liberties and Executive power.

            The importance of the Patriot Act to Rear Window is evident in a modern interpretation of the film.  Clearly, the concepts of terrorism are not readily apparent in Hitchcock's movie.  However, there are parallels that can be drawn here.  Keller mentions, for instance, that Mayfield is targeted for surveillance because of his religion and his legal work with a prominent member of al Qaeda.  Jeff draws upon similar associations in determining Thorwald's guilt, as he never actually sees any murder committed, only the presence of conditions that might lead to murder.   Additionally, Jeff becomes frustrated by the legal procedures that Doyle claims must be respected, and the Patriot Act demonstrates that difficult balance between respecting the rights of others and achieving rapid results.  Mayfield's lawyer claims that "our nation's most cherished principle [is] the right to be secure in one's own home.''  Yet Jeff and Lisa infringe upon that right in the case of Thorwald, and as a result we are left with conflicting ideas about the importance of privacy and the need to achieve justice.

Ranier, Peter.  "‘Disturbia' peeps into ‘Rear Window' for inspiration."  The Christian Science Monitor 13 April 2007: Features, Weekend 14.

            This article is a film review of the movie Disturbia, starring Shia LeBeouf.  Ranier comments on the obvious comparisons to Hitchcock's film, calling it "Rear Window for the YouTube generation."  The article summarizes the basic plot while simultaneously commenting on the film's positive and negative aspects.  Ranier then makes comparisons between Disturbia and Rear Window, as well as other films and books which are concerned with solving mysteries.  The article concludes by discussing the ending of the movie and the dubious casting of one of the characters.

            The importance of this article is not in its connection of Disturbia and Rear Window; the copycat plotline of the film is obvious.  Ranier does, however, make several key observations about Disturbia and its voyeuristic content.  First of all, the simple fact that Rear Window has been remade indicates the relevance that spectatorship still has to our society.  Indeed, Ranier's YouTube reference indicates that voyeurism remains as captivating as ever, particularly for the younger generation.  Additionally, Ranier makes a point of discussing the film's suburban setting, contrasting the dangerous city of Rear Window with the seemingly protected "cookie-cutter" homes of Disturbia.  While Ranier is referring to murderers when he says "the suburbs are where you flee to safety," he could just as easily be talking about the peeping toms who thrive in the close quarters of city life.  Disturbia shows that our privacy is now even less limited; as Ranier writes, "In the new high-tech world of voyeurism even teenagers can easily become expert operatives."  Finally, Ranier's comparisons of Disturbia with "the Spielberg 1970s" and "the Hardy Boys and Nancy Drew" suggest a positive, sympathetic outlook on voyeurism, the "teen fantasy," as he writes.  If voyeurism is supposed to be morally questionable in Rear Window, Ranier suggests that this is not the case in our modern society of Disturbia.

Howe, Lawrence.  "Through the Looking Glass: Reflexivity, Reciprocality, and Defenestration in Hitchcock's Rear Window."  College Literature 35.1 (2008): 16-37.

            This essay by Lawrence Howe provides a detailed analysis of the power of gaze in Rear Window, emphasizing the importance of gaze as a social, reciprocal process.  In his introduction, Howe calls upon the ideas of Sartre from his essay "The Look," defining how the film distinguishes between the social dynamics of "being-for-others" and "being-for-oneself."  After outlining his main points, Howe begins the body of his essay by describing the importance of gaze to Jeff's personality and how he values his subjective viewpoint.  In the second portion of his essay, Howe opposes Mulvey's view of Lisa Fremont, instead using evidence to portray her as a powerful woman who utilizes Jeff's preoccupation with voyeurism to win his affections.  In the final section of the essay, Howe describes how, in the climax of the film, Jeff's role as subjective viewer is inverted, and he becomes a part of the rest of society through the process of being observed by others.  In his conclusion, Howe relates his ideas to the reflexive nature of the film.

            There are several aspects of this essay that are very important contributions to any discussion of voyeurism in Rear Window.  First of all, the essay provides a unique take on Lisa Fremont's role in the movie, and raises the importance of the female in this concept of voyeuristic gaze.  Additionally, the essay deals with the latent elements of scopophobia in the film.  As eager as Jeff is to find out what Thorwald is doing, he is just as persistent in trying to avoid being seen by him and receive the same scrutinized treatment.  Howe also ties in important ideas about society and the connection that is to be gained by embracing the gaze of others.  Finally, the essay relates this reciprocal gaze to the audience itself.  Although the audience is in no danger of being caught watching as Jeff is, the viewers still have nothing to fear by watching the events, and embrace the "mutual need" of the observers and the characters.  Hitchcock's sly cameo, and his acknowledgement of the audience, demonstrates the reciprocal pleasure that is gained through the film.

Belton, John.  "The Space of Rear Window."  MLN 103.5 (1988): 1121-38.

            The focus of this essay is the physical space of Rear Window, and how elements such as the set, camera work, and editing contribute to a theatrical feel for the film.   Belton first discusses the limited location of the movie and how this ties into the narrative structure and leads to the creation of a "dramatic spectacle."  He then introduces other elements of the film that serve as theatrical motifs, such as the slow fades between scenes, the window shades, which function as a faux theater curtain, and references to theatrical expressions.  The essay then proceeds to discuss the concept of "cinematic space" in greater detail.  After this, Belton moves into the idea of spectatorship and voyeurism within the film, and then subsequently the roles of Jeff's neighbors as reflections of his own experiences.  Finally, Belton spends the remainder of the essay explaining how the space of the movie "becomes narrativized" through Hitchcock's direction, showing both Jeff's subjective view of the events and Hitchcock's own objective view.

            In regards to voyeurism, Belton provides more than just the simple concept of Jeff as stand-in for the cinematic spectator.  His belief that Rear Window is one of Hitchcock's most theatrical films introduces interesting ideas about what drama and spectatorship really mean to both theater and cinema.  The major difference between film and theater is of course the distance of space between the audience and the performers.  Hitchcock breaks down this distance, however, by limiting the actions of the movie to a single performance space, and by having Jeff as an audience substitute.  This distinction leads to questions about the role of voyeurism in a theatrical setting.  Additionally, as Belton points out, the windows across from Jeff's apartment serve as "mini-screens," each of which depicts a different story that might fulfill a spectator's desire, including comedy, melodrama, film-noir, and even peep-show.  Belton's observations shows how Hitchcock recognizes both the tradition of past spectatorship and the voyeuristic society that is yet to come, in the form of modern reality television.

"The Metafictional Hitchcock" / R. Barton Palmer

In this essay, Palmer seeks to examine two of Hitchcock's later films, Rear Window and Psycho, and how they fulfill the criteria of "Metafictional" works.  He employs the definition provided by Patricia Waugh, who describes metafictional narratives as stories that "tend to be constructed on the principle of a fundamental and sustained opposition: the construction of a fictional illusion (as in the traditional realism) and the laying bare of that illusion..." Examining the two films individually, Palmer makes specific comparisons between the films and the works of Brecht and film noir.  He analyzes numerous other aspects of each film before noting some of their major contrasting points.  In his conclusion, Palmer determines that both films are reflexive, metafictional works, Rear Window by exploring "the existential basis of storytelling," and Psycho by undercutting the traditional Hollywood style of film-making.

Palmer directly addresses the idea that Rear Window is a commentary on voyeurism, and puts forth his own distinct take on the issue.  For him, the analogy between Jeff and the cinematic spectator is limited to the beginning of the film, before Jeff has decided to take action.  Once he realizes the nature of Thorwald's activity, Jeff abandons the role of spectator and assumes the role of a character in this narrative, a murder mystery of which he is the primary author.  Jeff only resumes the role of spectator when Lisa investigates Thorwald's bedroom, vicariously experiencing her dangerous situation.  In the end of the film, Jeff is completely removed from the role of spectator, as he survives Thorwald's attack and brings about his arrest.  Palmer connects these ideas to a metafictional interpretation, concluding that the film seeks to establish the distinction between spectator and character in storytelling.  By relinquishing the role of voyeur and interpreting his "story" as reality, Jeff consequentially puts himself in danger and suffers a broken leg.  At the same time, however, he puts a murderer in jail and starts himself on "a therapeutic project which delivers him to the joys and responsibilities...of full adult life."

This book focuses on the theories of Jacque Lacan and Sigmund Freud, and their application to feminist and bisexual ideas in Hitchcock's films.  Within each chapter, Samuels discusses a recent theory put forth on a particular film, and how their theories compare to the Lacanian and Freudian ideas.  Major theorists under discussion include Julia Kristeva Kaja Silverman, Judith Butler, Luce Irigary, and Slavoj Zizek.  Overall, Samuels maintains throughout the course of the book that Hitchcock's films are heterogeneous in nature and "present multiple forms of sexual identification and desire."

            Chapter 7, titled "Rear Window Ethics: Laura Mulvey and the Inverted Gaze," discusses Mulvey's interpretation of Rear Window in her essay, "Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema."  Specifically, Samuels claims that Mulvey has misinterpreted Lacan's idea of the gaze, as well as the definition of voyeurism.  While Mulvey depicts the gaze as a tool for male dominance, Samuels believes that gaze is instead "an object that threatens to escape from the control of the eye or the ‘I'."  Thus, men fear losing their gaze, and do not have the control over it that Mulvey claims.  Likewise, the concept of voyeurism is inverted as well.  For Mulvey, voyeurism is an active search for an object of desire, while Samuels sees it as looking for the absence, not presence, of the object.  Beyond these differences, Samuels interprets Jeff's obsession with the events of the opposite apartment building as a secret homosexual desire, not an overt heterosexual one.  Jeff ignores the perfectly feminine Lisa in favor of the masculine Thorwald, and in his voyeuristic endeavors, he is trying to put himself in the female position of Mrs. Thorwald, and perhaps "Miss Lonely Heart" as well.  In continuation of this argument, Samuels uses examples of Jeff's incompleteness as a man and his frequent use of phallic symbols in conjunction with Thorwald.  In the end, Samuels claims, Lisa only becomes more attractive to Jeff once she has made herself more masculine, once again pointing to Jeff's covert bi-sexuality.  Clearly, this is a drastically distinct reading from Mulvey's feminist argument.

 Mulvey, Laura. “Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema.” 17 Jan. 2007. Brown Wiki.    
        <https://wiki.brown.edu/confluence/display/MarkTribe/Visual+Pleasure+and+Narrative+Cinema>

        Laura Mulvey uses psychoanalysis to highlight the ways in which film reveals society’s view on sexual differences and desires. The paper explores the structured implementation of phallocentric themes which acknowledge the dominance of the male gender. Such an argument is centered around the image of a castrated woman. Mulvey states that “woman's desire is subjected to her image as bearer of the bleeding wound, she can exist only in relation to castration and cannot transcend it.” Without the male reproductive organ, the woman is at a loss. The sole meaning for a woman is to signify the existence of the better male version. Deriving their meaning solely from males, women passively submit themselves to the wants and obsessions of the imposing male. By analyzing this concept, Mulvey believes that feminists can find the true roots of female oppression. The paper explains that the magic of Hollywood is derived from its manipulation of visual pleasure. The article discusses the integration of erotic themes in film and the meaning of such undertones.
        Mulvey discusses the way that the male looks at the female in Vertigo. Scottie looks at Madeleine in a way that fluctuates between “voyeurism and fetishistic fascination.” Scottie’s desire to remake his lost love and Judy’s willingness to do so, is an example of his dominance over her. Through the use of camera techniques, Hitchcock allows the viewer to take Scottie’s perspective and thus take on his position. The paper relates Scottie’s drive to reconstruct Madeleine to a fetish. As a woman, Judy knows that her role is to submit, and realizes that such a role is necessary to retain his erotic interest in her.
        This paper affirms the feminist belief that Hollywood seeks to affirm male dominance by integrating it into its films. The oppressive manner in which men look at women, the “male gaze,” can be demonstrated through point of view shots. By making Madeleine the object of the camera’s desire (Scottie’s), the audience also experiences the possession. The paper is important as it serves as an example of feminist reaction to Hitchcock’s film.

Manlove, Clifford T. “Visual ‘Drive’ and the Cinematic Narrative.” Cinema Journal 2007, 83-108.
        Project MUSE. University of Pennsylvania Library, Philadelphia. 4 Apr. 2008.
        <http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/cinema_journal/v046/46.3manlove.html>.
 

        In this essay, Clifford T. Manlove comments on Laura Mulvey’s 1975 essay, “Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema” and its application to Hitchcock’s Vertigo. Manlove explores the concept of “gaze theory” to explain opposing perceptions of the events that happen in the film. This idea of gaze refers to how the surrounding world views the presented characters. According to Manlove, Vertigo provides us with an “example of the formative split between the eye and its gaze.” The split is caused by Scottie’s near-death experience at the beginning of the film. Through the use of subjective camera positioning, we too as an audience experience a change in perception as we follow him around. Scottie’s vertigo forms a barrier between him and the people and objects that surround him. Things that may appear ordinary to others take on a special visual meaning to him. Manlove uses the example of the policeman who saves Scottie. Scottie sees a horrifying fall below him, while the policeman is unaffected and reaches out to help him. As an audience we can gaze upon Scottie, but only through camera techniques can we truly see how he sees. Hitchcock invented the “Vertigo shot” as a means of conveying his unique perception. The camera tracks backwards while zooming in, thus highlighting the occurrence of the split. “What to a rational observer looks like an alleyway, Scottie sees as a threatening object, simultaneously approaching yet infinitely receding.” Manlove goes on to relate the gaze to Scottie’s failure to save Madeleine, and its eventual result in Judy’s death. The essay further applies the concept of gaze to Rear Window and Marnie.
        Manlove’s analysis helps us distinguish the fact that what the surrounding characters in the film see may be different from what Scottie sees. As an audience we are provided with insight into Scottie’s troubled mind by understanding the effects of his vertigo and how this might affect his insistence in reconstructing his lost love. Manlove helps us see that the story is driven by and conveyed through Scottie’s unstable state of mind. It is clear that Manlove has an appreciation for the techniques that Hitchcock used to convey his vision.

Wexman, Virginia. “The Critic as Consumer: Film Study in the University, ‘Vertigo’, and the Film Canon.”
        Film Quarterly Spring 1986, 32-41. JSTOR. University of Pennsylvania Library, Philadelphia. 4 Apr. 2008.
        <http://jstor.org/stable/1212375>.

        Virgina Wexman discusses the varying types of critical response that Vertigo has generated, and how they ignore the commercial aspects of the film. According to Wexman, Vertigo “most owes its preeminence to the opinions of cinema scholars rather than the enthusiasm of less ‘committed’ film fans” (33). Critics tend to come from two folds. One line of approach analyzes Hitchcock’s artistic influence on the film. They feel that Vertigo is a demonstration of the director’s visionary genius. The other group of critics finds value in Vertigo’s skillful objectification of women. Regardless of their focus, both sets of critics refuse to accept the notion that Vertigo was made solely for commercial success. Upon further review it becomes apparent that Hitchcock was preoccupied with such a goal. The director exploited the “star system” with big names such as James Stewart and Kim Novak. In fact, he committed to the actors before the script had even been written. Hitchcock knew that Kim Novak could be employed as a romantic idol and utilized profile shots to capitalize on her unquestioned beauty. In addition to using stars, Wexman explains that Hitchcock increased the film’s commercial appeal through the use of extravagant settings. He was aware of the fact that audiences had an appreciation for traveling to far off, exotic locales. Viewers of Vertigo are treated as tourists as they are taken on a journey to all of San Francisco’s famous sites.
        According to the article, Hitchcock envisioned the stars, envisioned the settings, and had his writer fill in the rest. The article introduces the fact that there are two distinct types of criticism that have spawned in response to the film. One type focuses on the technical and aesthetic achievements of the picture, while the other type focuses on the film’s negative depiction of women.