Donaldson, Susan V. “Telling Forgotten Stories of Slavery in the Postmodern South.” The Southern Literary Journal. 40.2 (Spring 2008) < http://proxy.library.upenn.edu:2298/journals/southern_literary_journal/v040/40.2.donaldson.html>

Susan Donaldson’s article explores the response of the black population to Gone With the Wind’s depiction of slavery and African Americans. Due to the depictions of Black characters like Prissy, a “stupid” and “sqeaky” slave, the reaction from the Black community was strongly negative. Even writers like Malcolm X describe the discomfort and disgust they endured watching the humiliation of actress Butterfly McQueen in her role as Prissy. African American historian and feminist Alice Walker described viewing the film as a “nightmare… in which the suffering of millions of black people over hundreds of years of enslavement is trivialized to the point of laughter. It is a film in which one spoiled white woman’s summer of picking cotton is deemed more important than the work, under the lash, of twenty generations of my ancestors.”

Donaldson’s article is of particular importance to the analysis of the historical truth underlying the film Gone With the Wind because it provides the responses of black Americans to the film, a typically silenced minority. Acknowledging that the film employs racist stereotypes in their depiction of slaves is critically to understanding the true Black culture in the South. Further, in light of Alice Walker’s response to the film, it is important that the viewer understands the hypocrisy and manipulation of the film. Scarlett is cast as a heroine and matriarch for much of the film, however she is only granted this title because she attempts the work that her slaves have been doing for her people for generations.

Essentially, Donaldson describes Gone With the Wind as a misleading illustration of the 19^th Century South, as well as a misguided acclamation of white Southern women.

Richardson, Riché. “Southern Horrors, Global Terrors.” Black Renaissance, 7.3 (Fall 2007). 30 Nov. 2008.

Southern Horrors, Global Terrors by Riche Richardson analyzes the manner in which producers D.W. Griffith and David Selznick approached translating the racially-charged novels “The Clansman” and “Gone With the Wind” into film. Both novels, set during the American Civil War and rooted in Southern ideology, utilize virulent racist language to illustrate the pervasive bigotry typical of the South during the War period. Griffith’s 1915 film Birth of a Nation, based on the novel “The Clansman,” retains and advances the novel’s racist elements. In contrast, Selznick’s 1939 film adaptation of Gone With the Wind offers an ostensibly less racially-charged account of the War and Reconstruction than both the film’s literary counterpart and Birth of a Nation. Richardson describes the film version of Gone With the Wind as more “sanitized,” ignoring numerous instances in the novel where popular characters like Rhett Butler and Melanie Wilkes dehumanize and devalue African Americans. Further, Richardson contends that Selznick’s omission of many of Margaret Mitchell’s racist elements is reflective of Hollywood’s contemporary rejection of overt racism as distasteful and morally reprehensible.

In assessing the consistency of Gone With the Wind with the history of the Civil War and Reconstruction, Richardson’s article provides a valuable insight into the nature of racism in the 19th Century South. Both novels advance the Southern ideology of the period that aimed to perpetuate black inferiority to the white supremacist class. As the article illustrates, Griffith chose to accommodate such bigotry in his film, while Selznick chose to “tone down” Mitchell’s racist elements. Selznick’s choice to abandon much of the bigotry that pervades the literary narrative may make the film more appealing to contemporary Hollywood and American culture, but makes the film less reflective of the Southern ideology of the period.

Conde, Mary. “Some African-American Fictional Responses to Gone With the Wind.” The Yearbook of English Studies. 26. (1996) JSTOR. University of Pennsylvania Library. Philadelphia. 1 Dec. 2008. < http://www.jstor.org/stable/3508659>

    In her essay, author Mary Conde addresses the African American community’s reaction to Gone With the Wind, and the novel’s writer Margaret Mitchell’s reaction to their criticism. The most common criticism of the novel is that it appealed to a mythic and romanticized ideal of the “Old South” that ignores the atrocities of the Civil War and the practice of slavery. However, Mitchell vehemently denies these accusations, claiming that she herself denies the existence of any rosy Southern ideal. Further, it is important to note that her novel’s protagonist, Scarlett O’Hara, does not support the Confederate cause and, as illustrated by her emotional breakdown in the hospital while treating veterans, is deeply moved by the atrocities war. Despite Scarlett’s dismissal of the Confederate cause as a justification for war, many African Americans continue to dismiss Gone With the Wind as a gross misrepresentation of the era of slavery in the South.
    The reaction of the African American community to the Hollywood adaptation of Gone With the Wind provides numerous examples of the historical inconsistencies and myths present in the film. Many of these reactions have taken the form of fictional writing intended to undermine the glorification of the “Old South.” Novels like Dessa Rose and Jubilee depict the black woman’s struggle during the Civil War. In both novels, the protagonists are hideously scarred, and the plot is ridden with violence and exploitation. Such novels stand in direct contrast to Mitchell’s novel, and paint a more realistic, albeit grim, picture of the American South in the Civil War.

Toplin, Robert Brent. “Hollywood’s History: The Historians’ Response.” Reviews in American History, 24.2 (1996)

            Robert Brent Toplin’s review of Hollywood’s adaptation of literature to film throughout history analyzes the historical accuracy of David Selznick’s celebrated blockbuster hit Gone With the Wind. In his analysis, Toplin acknowledges the common tendency of Hollywood producers and writers to remove minor stories or characters to simplify the story into a streamlined melodrama. Further, moviemakers will often overstate truths in addition to simplifying them to elicit a response from the audience. Such “creative uses of evidence” are apparent in Hollywood’s Gone With the Wind.

            Toplin cites historian Catherine Clinton’s discussion of Gone With the Wind in which the scholar addresses the film’s classic flaws. Clinton argues that Selznick’s constant appeal to “Old South” romanticism detracts from the broader historical and cultural message of the film. However, the most troubling issue for Clinton concerns the depiction of slaves as “happy-go-lucky darkies who are ever loving and loyal to their… benevolent masters.” Clinton finds Selznick’s illustration of slavery and the slaves themselves as offensive and distastefully romanticized. Clinton concedes, however, that the film provides an adequate and realistic view of an “up-country” Georgia. Gerald O’Hara’s humble foreign origins, coupled with Scarlett O’Hara’s rise from “southern belle” to matriarch during the Reconstruction, serves as a reliable reflection of the social fabric of Northern Georgia in the post-war South. Futher, Rhett’s initial resistance and skepticism toward the war movement in the beginning of the film was a sentiment shared by many Confederates in the antebellum period.

In his chapter of Black American Cinema, author and professor J. Ronald Green applies W.E.B. DuBois term "twoness" to Oscar Micheaux's film style. First, Green mentions Thomas Cripps's ground-breaking book on the history of race movies, Slow Fade to Black, how Cripps based his assessment on the cultural phenomenon of racial assimilation, and Cripps's referral to Black cinema as anti-assimilation. Within this book, says Green, Cripps recognized a debilitating dilemma for Black film in America, with which Cripps closely associated DuBois's concept of twoness of American racial codes: how Blacks face the possibility of two social identities at the same time, whose relations to each other are strained, but which each Black American must somehow resolve individually. Ultimately, Blacks have a need to retain their ethnicity in the face of assimilation, and Cripps viewed black cinema as a form of non-assimilation. Green then goes on to highlight how Micheaux's financial struggles to make films failed to explain his retention of early film techniques. The author believes Micheaux seemingly amateur, raw style contributed to his message of truth.

While Cripps accused Micheaux of imitating white films because of his harsh critiques of his own black community, Green opposes, arguing that Micheaux's depictions brought life and reality to film. In addition to his constructive criticisms, meant to provoke change in the black community, Micheaux rejects typical Hollywood style in order to display his non-assimilation. Micheaux's style shows retention of early film traits that critics (like Cripps) often label as amateurish, naïve artlessness. Simple, direct, and jagged, Micheaux meant for his films to counter aesthetically pleasing Hollywood dramas, like Griffith's Birth of a Nation, and symbolize truth. As Green illustrates, Micheaux's films suggested that the glossy illusionism of Hollywood films concealed the truth, a virtue that Hollywood failed to value. Just as the beautiful body of Rev. Jenkins in Body and Soul hid corruption, the polished appearance of Hollywood film constantly masked honesty.

Feminist author Bell Hooks discusses the works of Oscar Micheaux, and how they challenge conventional racist representations while still producing images that convey the complexities and feelings of blacks in a realistic manner. Bell Hooks explores the techniques used by Micheaux to not only mirror real life, but to also go beyond the realm of the ordinary. She explains Micheaux's utilization of melodrama, clarifying how his films work to transgress boundaries and offer perspectives on black experience unseen in any other cinematic practices. Micheaux's focus on both interracial sexual bondings and racialized sexual politics as they influenced the expressionism of desire in black heterosexual couples is also mentioned. Hooks then applies her thoughts to Micheaux's 1932 film Ten Minutes to Live, and considers how it problematizes the location of black heterosexual pleasure with a rigid social order, based on color, that makes the desired object the body most resembling whiteness. For my essay though, I will refer to Bell Hooks's interpretation of Micheaux as a black director.

            Like many other present-day Micheaux scholars, Bell Hooks defends Micheaux's intentions for creating seemingly racist films. Her evaluation of Micheaux in terms of melodrama proves useful for understanding his method. Micheaux melodrama depends on grand gestures, broad moral themes with narratives of coincidence, reverses and sudden happy endings organized around a rigid opposition between good and evil, the characters represent forces rather than people, and the style throws doubt on the adequacy of speech to express the complexities of passion. These characteristics of melodrama are valuable for my argument because they deal with general concepts of human life, not black or white life. Broad moral themes and the balance of good versus evil have surfaced repeatedly in film and literature because they are part of the basic human condition. Body and Soul provides a perfect example of Micheaux's melodrama style.

Citation:

Green, Ronald J. "Oscar Micheaux's Interrogation of Caricature as Entertainment." Film Quarterly 51.3 (1998): 16-31.

Content and Relevance of Work:

J. Ronald Green's article addresses the issue of Black stereotypes and caricatures displayed in the entertainment industry. Green believes that pervasive, ethnic images blocked any autonomous effort put forth by African American entertainers to provide a realistic model of African American citizenship. Since nothing could be accomplished until that problem was resolved, Oscar Micheaux made this issue a top priority. Then, the author highlights important milestones of Micheaux's career, his childhood, and the financial hurdles he was forced to overcome. Green focuses on the success of D.W. Griffith's Birth of a Nation: the stereotypes and setbacks it provided for African Americans, and the motivation it provided Micheaux to remove these caricatures. Micheaux, Green argues, recreates these caricatures for the purpose of criticizing them, and explains how dialects provide a framework in relation to his ethnic criticisms.

Overall, Green's defends Micheaux's use of caricatures, saying it draws attention to what is wrong in the Black community, so that Blacks can repair the problem in what Green calls a "search and destroy" mission on Micheaux's part. Since this text suggests that Micheaux goes beyond positive images to function within the race as a starting cure, Micheaux held high expectations for the future of black and white race relations. If the black community were to answer his call, and repair its problems, blacks could finally command respect from whites. As a result, the change Micheaux attempts to provoke could spark an end to most of the mistreatment and racism projected by whites upon blacks. Unlike author Charlene Regester's article titled "The Misreading and Rereading of Oscar Micheaux," Green's article does not discuss Body and Soul's relevance a larger audience (i.e. not just a black audience).

Citation:

Regester, Charlene. "The Misreading and Rereading of African American Filmmaker Oscar Micheaux: A Critical Review of Micheaux Scholarship" Film History 7.4 (1995): 426-449.

Content and Relevance of Work:

In this article, author and editor Charlene Regester defends Micheaux's intentions for making such controversial films, implying that the public misreads and misinterprets his work. Regester counters quotes from other Micheaux scholars, such as Gary Null and Donald Bogle, to argue her opinion that Micheaux presented valuable lessons to the Black community in each of his films. The article advises the re-examination of Micheaux's films. This text investigates how the critical profile of Micheaux has been constructed by researchers and scholars, how this profile has changed overtime (each decade from before the seventies to the nineties), and how it continues to evolve. Although many Micheaux scholars believe his films lacked ethnic truth and only reflected the outlooks of the black bourgeoisie, Regester claims Micheaux felt that whites and blacks were on an equal level: just as affluent, educated, cultured, and well-mannered. Lastly, Regester confronts the difficulty of studying African American filmmakers by the same standards as those used for critiquing white American filmmakers without taking into consideration the unique obstacles that complicated the African American filmmaking efforts.

According to Regester, Micheaux ignored the supposed burden of representing the blacks in only a favorable light because if his desire to better the African American community. Cripps says, in his quote within the article, this need to accurately depict black life is an exposé of social conditions relevant only to "Negro circles," and that Rev. Jenkins is an allegorical black figure who symbolizes the overall struggle of blacks: whether to fill the role of prim bourgeois, and risk losing black culture, or to become a criminal and hustler. Regester states, though, that through Micheaux's description of this rare side of black life to the general public, audiences (both black and white) found similarities to one another. Micheaux's focus on the dichotomy of good and evil pertains to a struggle of all mankind, not simply that of the black race. This particular aspect of Body and Soul that Regester identifies will be at the center of my essay.

J. Ronald Green's article addresses the issue of Black stereotypes and caricatures displayed in the entertainment industry. Green believes that pervasive, ethnic images blocked any autonomous effort put forth by African American entertainers to provide a realistic model of African American citizenship. Since nothing could be accomplished until that problem was resolved, Oscar Micheaux made this issue a top priority. Then, the author highlights important milestones of Micheaux's career, his childhood, and the financial hurdles he was forced to overcome. Green focuses on the success of D.W. Griffith's Birth of a Nation: the stereotypes and setbacks it provided for African Americans, and the motivation it provided Micheaux to remove these caricatures. Micheaux, Green argues, recreates these caricatures for the purpose of criticizing them, and explains how dialects provide a framework in relation to his ethnic criticisms.

Overall, Green's defends Micheaux's use of caricatures, saying it draws attention to what is wrong in the Black community, so that Blacks can repair the problem in what Green calls a "search and destroy" mission on Micheaux's part. Since this text suggests that Micheaux goes beyond positive images to function within the race as a starting cure, Micheaux held high expectations for the future of black and white race relations. If the black community were to answer his call, and repair its problems, blacks could finally command respect from whites. As a result, the change Micheaux attempts to provoke could spark an end to most of the mistreatment and racism projected by whites upon blacks. Unlike author Charlene Regester's article titled "The Misreading and Rereading of Oscar Micheaux," Green's article does not discuss Body and Soul's relevance a larger audience (i.e. not just a black audience).

Citation:

Green, Ronald J. "Oscar Micheaux's Interrogation of Caricature as Entertainment." Film Quarterly 51.3 (1998): 16-31.

Citation:

Regester, Charlene. "The Misreading and Rereading of African American Filmmaker Oscar Micheaux: A Critical Review of Micheaux Scholarship" Film History 7.4 (1995): 426-449.

In this article, author and editor Charlene Regester defends Micheaux's intentions for making such controversial films, implying that the public misreads and misinterprets his work. Regester counters quotes from other Micheaux scholars, such as Gary Null and Donald Bogle, to argue her opinion that Micheaux presented valuable lessons to the Black community in each of his films. The article advises the re-examination of Micheaux's films. This text investigates how the critical profile of Micheaux has been constructed by researchers and scholars, how this profile has changed overtime (each decade from before the seventies to the nineties), and how it continues to evolve. Although many Micheaux scholars believe his films lacked ethnic truth and only reflected the outlooks of the black bourgeoisie, Regester claims Micheaux felt that whites and blacks were on an equal level: just as affluent, educated, cultured, and well-mannered. Lastly, Regester confronts the difficulty of studying African American filmmakers by the same standards as those used for critiquing white American filmmakers without taking into consideration the unique obstacles that complicated the African American filmmaking efforts.

According to Regester, Micheaux ignored the supposed burden of representing the blacks in only a favorable light because if his desire to better the African American community. Cripps says, in his quote within the article, this need to accurately depict black life is an exposé of social conditions relevant only to "Negro circles," and that Rev. Jenkins is an allegorical black figure who symbolizes the overall struggle of blacks: whether to fill the role of prim bourgeois, and risk losing black culture, or to become a criminal and hustler. Regester states, though, that through Micheaux's description of this rare side of black life to the general public, audiences (both black and white) found similarities to one another. Micheaux's focus on the dichotomy of good and evil pertains to a struggle of all mankind, not simply that of the black race. This particular aspect of Body and Soul that Regester identifies will be at the center of my essay.

The authors, filmmaker Pearl Bowser and professor Louise Spence, explore Oscar Micheaux's silent drama, Body and Soul (1925), in relation to some of the critical discourses of the past. After the release of Birth of a Nation in 1915, many middle-class Black-Americans desired for assimilation and acceptance into typical White-American culture. Creating films that reflected his personal experiences and observations, Micheaux focused on realistic representations and important issues of the race-conscious Black community, rather than positive images. The texts describes how many members of the Black community felt Micheaux placed too much emphasis on the oppressed, causing social embarrassment, and accused him of disloyalty.  The authors use the considerations and critiques of Body and Soul and other early works to examine some of the competing cultural value judgments that inflected the politics of racial identity and pursuit of racial unity throughout the period between the Great War and the Great Depression.

            The aspects of Body and Soul discussed in this article address how Micheaux exposed stereotypes in order to convey a message to his Black audience. Bowser and Spence consider how Micheaux challenged the authority of the minister within the Black church congregations with his main character, malevolent preacher Isaiah T. Jenkins. The parishioners support the minister, despite his violent and murderous ways, with their unquestioning faith. The article points out that, while the minister's power goes unsupervised, the church-goers "blind faith" endorses the minister's corruption. The guise of the ministry enables the con artist to hone and deploy his deceptions. Just as Rev. Jenkins hides behind the body of the church (the congregation), blacks hide behind the burden of representation: since blacks represent the minority, and all people are defined by race, they feel as though every move made will affect others' perceptions of the black race. Therefore, blacks wish to conceal or ignore the flaws within their own community. Although African Americans expect artistic voices to "represent" blacks only in a good light, or to be art of protest in civil rights and race relations, "representation" is not art. Art is about truth, which Micheaux realizes, and truth is always a burden on the truth-teller. Willing to accept this burden, Micheaux uses film as a call to the black community, a message pinpointing important issues that he felt must be fixed.   

Citation:

Bowser, Pearl and Louis Spence. "Oscar Micheaux's Body and Soul and the Burden of Representation" Cinema Journal 39.3 (2000): 3-29.

Citation:

Bowser, Pearl and Louis Spence. "Oscar Micheaux's Body and Soul and the Burden of Representation" Cinema Journal 39.3 (2000): 3-29.

Content and Relevance of Work:

Pearl Bowser and Louis Spence's article, "Oscar Micheaux's Body and Soul and the Burden of Representation", looks at Micheaux's unflattering representations of black people in the film Body and Soul and their effect on what was, for the most part, a disapproving black community. Bowser and Spence view Micheaux's film as an attempt at exposing black realities. However, it was clear that many people in the 1920's did not want to see blacks portrayed in this negative or downtrodden light. Many critics denounced Micheaux's film because it did not provide blacks with a character of color on the screen who they could emulate and feel proud of. Bowser and Spence explain how other black filmmakers of the time were producing films with larger-than-life representations of black protagonists. Micheaux's Body and Soul, however, challenges the authority of its protagonist black preacher and depicts the various class conflicts even within black society. Bowser and Spence make sure to point out that not all aspects of the black characters are shown in a negative light either. For example, the laundress Sister Martha Jane in Body and Soul is shown as hard-working. In the end it seems that Bowser and Spence's underlying argument is that in the film Body and Soul Micheaux was trying to expose the truth of an African American class structure that was becoming more and more stratified. In order to do this, they contend, he had to portray all facets of black society, both good and bad. This article is extremely relevant to the question at hand in that it addresses the film directly and provides a distinct reason for why Micheaux felt the need to display negative images of black people on screen. First of all, it must be noted that not all black characters and not all aspects of the black characters were actually negative. Secondly, Micheaux saw the necessity for showing these negative images in order to address the class divisions within black society. Thus, in the eyes of Bowser and Spence, Micheaux's motives were not entirely racial; he was concerned with the internal divisions in black communities and was not racist against his own kind.

Citation:

Allmendinger, Blake. "The Plow and the Pen: The Pioneering Adventures of Oscar Micheaux" American Literature 75.3 (2003): 545-569.

Content and Relevance of Work:

Blake Allmendinger elects to analyze Micheaux's written works as opposed to his films in his article titled "The Plow and the Pen: The Pioneering Adventures of Oscar Micheaux". However, this is still very relevant to the question I have posed because a look at his portrayal of black people in his writings may help us understand Micheaux's representation of blacks in his film, Body and Soul. Allmendinger's focus, in particular, is on three of Micheaux's novels which he believes form a trilogy: The Conquest, The Homesteader and The Wind from Nowhere. Allmendinger argues that historians and critics have focused too much on Micheaux the filmmaker and allotted an inadequate amount of research and time to study of Micheaux the author. He contends that Micheaux's partially autobiographical novels reveal the most about his personal beliefs and ideas. Allmendinger puts a lot of stock in what he dubs Micheaux's "double consciousness"; this was a contradiction between black reality and fantasy in which Micheaux knew that people of his race could achieve economic success but were, in essence, hindered by the white man's underestimation of black potential. Allmendinger alludes to this as he points out the contrast between Micheaux's first book of the trilogy, The Conquest, and the other two books, The Homesteader and The Wind from Nowhere. The former refutes the notion that blacks can achieve the American dream and the latter two run counter to this and provide black protagonists who lift themselves up and become heroes who realize freedom. The difference between the two storylines possibly runs the gamut between reality and fantasy. Allmendinger also points out that Micheaux's alter egos, the protagonists of these novels, exhibit contempt for blacks who do not work diligently and attempt to rise above racial bounds. This could correspond to Micheaux's film Body and Soul and the characters he presents there. The negative images he provides in Body and Soul may be similar to the blacks in these novels who he appears to disdain for their lack of effort to overcome racial tensions. It is clear that Almendinger's analysis of Micheaux's writings proves very useful in understanding Micheaux's view of blacks and concomitant presentation of blacks in films such as Body and Soul.

Citation:

Regester, Charlene. "The Misreading and Rereading of African American Filmmaker Oscar Micheaux: A Critical Review of Micheaux Scholarship" Film History 7.4 (1995): 426-449.

Content and Relevance of Work:

In her article titled "The Misreading and Rereading of African American Filmmaker Oscar Micheaux: A Critical Review of Micheaux Scholarship", Charlene Regester provides an account of the ways in which Micheaux's films and literary works have been interpreted over the years. She starts with the period before the 1970s and works through the decades of the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s. In the process she demonstrates an increasing awareness and appreciation for Micheaux's work by scholars and film historians. By the 1990s, she contends, Micheaux had correctly taken his place as a crucial part of black film history. Although it does mention the film Body and Soul briefly in some examples, this article does not expressly focus on the film. However, this article proves very useful to our investigation in that it provides varying interpretations by a range of scholars who were trying to analyze Micheaux's role as a filmmaker and his motives and goals within his films. By reading different scholars' views of Micheaux's films and their role as racial commentaries will provide us with good jumping-off-points for understand Micheaux's controversial Body and Soul. Before the 1970s, for example, Regester explains how scholars believed that Micheaux distrusted many people in society such as ministers and demonstrated this distrust in his films. This could help us understand Micheaux's negative depiction of the Reverend Jenkins in Body and Soul. According to Regester, critics before 1970 also condemned Micheaux for compromising his own identity in favor of white values in order to create successful films and make more money. This could be another plausible reason for Micheaux's negative depictions of blacks in his film Body and Soul; perhaps he was simply an opportunist, appealing to a white audience that would sell more tickets. In the 1970s, there was continued criticism of Micheaux's films for perpetuating demeaning images of blacks by whites. However, by the 1990s, Regester shows us that interpretations of Micheaux's films had shifted and it became more accepted that Micheaux should be commended for his portrayal of blacks in his films because they heightened racial tensions and increased audience awareness of race-related issues. These diverse interpretations are very useful in offering conceivable reasons for why Micheaux presented negative images of blacks in his film, Body and Soul.

Citation:

Hooks, Bell. "Micheaux: Celebrating Blackness" Black American Literature Forum 25.2 (1991): 351-360.

Content and Relevance of Work:

Bell Hooks' article, "Micheaux: Celebrating Blackness", explores the way in which Micheaux used his films to challenge conventional racist representations of blacks. She contends that Micheaux, however, was not interested in simply responding to racist white films by portraying positive images of blacks; he wanted to portray blacks as complex characters defined by their experiences and their emotions and not by their color. Hooks focuses on another one of Micheaux's films called Ten Minutes to Live. She argues that in the film nothing is as simplistic as it may appear in everyday life and that perceptions can easily be manipulated. By exaggerating these complex images of black people and black society Micheaux was able to provoke his audience and make people reevaluate the way in which they approached race and color. The result in Hooks' mind is a celebration of blackness. Although this article focuses on another one of Micheaux's films Ten Minutes to Live, it nevertheless provides an original opinion on Micheaux's complex representations of blacks in his films and thus a possible manner in which to approach Micheaux's other film, Body and Soul. Bell Hooks' would most likely argue that Micheaux was anything but racist against his own kind in creating films such as Body and Soul. On the contrary, he promoted black pride and wanted society to view black men and women as multifaceted beings who should not be restrained by the color of their skin. Hooks' article can help explain why Micheaux refrained from presenting blatantly positive images of blacks in his film Body and Soul; it was more important to Micheaux to portray blacks as intricate characters who could be both good and bad depending on their experiences and feelings. Micheaux saw race as playing little role in a person's proclivity for being good or bad and wanted to convey this in films such as Body and Soul. Hence, the existence of negative images as well as positive images of blacks in the film.

Citation:

Green, Ronald J. "Oscar Micheaux's Interrogation of Caricature as Entertainment." Film Quarterly 51.3 (1998): 16-31.

Content and Relevance of Work:

In the article titled "Oscar Micheaux's Interrogation of Caricature as Entertainment" Ronald J. Green takes a look at Oscar Micheaux's response to negative stereotypes and images of blacks in early white films. Green explains how most black directors responded by creating films that portrayed positive images of blacks in society. However, although Micheaux like the other directors saw caricatures and stereotypes as barriers to black people's individuality and emancipation, he believed that he would be most effective in his films if used these same caricatures of blacks and simply exaggerated them to the point where he would be mocking their existence in white films. Thus, he would be using negative stereotypes in his own films with the purpose of criticizing them. Green describes the ‘ABAB' character method used by Micheaux as a specific way in which he used caricatures to critique a class-based society. His films would have ‘A' characters and ‘B' characters: The ‘A' characters would represent black middle-class legitimacy while the ‘B' characters were supposed to symbolize illegitimate black caricatures such as "coons". Green uses the preacher played by Paul Robeson in Body and Soul as an example of a ‘B' character. Green recognizes that Micheaux's use of negative images of blacks in his films such as Body and Soul can create the sensation that Micheaux was racist against his own kind. However, Green's argument is that Micheaux was not trying to further degrade his own kind; he was attempting to draw on existing stereotypes in order to criticize their place in society. Thus, this article is very relevant to the analysis of whether or not Micheaux is using the film Body and Soul to present a negative image of blacks with the purpose of criticizing their place in society. Green analyzes the role of black caricatures in Micheaux's films and even uses Body and Soul as an example. Green's article can be seen as a counterargument to the idea that Micheaux was racist against his own kind and so is a valuable source in the investigation of the presentation of blacks in Micheaux's Body and Soul.

Citation:

Wiesenfeld, Judith. "For the Cause of Mankind: The Bible, Racial Uplift and Early Race Movies." African Americans and the Bible. Ed. Vincent L. Wimbush and Rosamond C. Rodman. New York: Continuum International Publishing Group, 2001. 728-740.

Content and Relevance of Work:

In her article "For the Cause of Mankind: The Bible, Racial Uplift and Early Race Movies" found in the book African Americans and the Bible, Judith Wiesenfeld explores both the prevalence of religious themes in early black films and the ways in which early black filmmakers attempted to respond to D.W. Griffith's negative representation of blacks in his film Birth of a Nation. Wiesenfeld first analyzes Birth of a Nation which she sees to be the catalyst for much of early black film as it denigrated blacks and promoted a racist ideology. She then explores the overall ineffectiveness of the initial response by blacks embodied in the film Birth of a Race which attempted to use the Bible to emphasize equality. The rest of her essay focuses on the methods of one particular black filmmaker, Oscar Micheaux, and his creation of films such as Within Our Gates and Body and Soul to respond to widespread racism against blacks in white films. Wiesenfeld takes a look at Body and Soul and demonstrates how Micheaux depicted blacks as thinking members of complex communities which varied according to class, education, religion and politics. She emphasizes this "complex" image of blacks which Micheaux chose to present instead of a deliberately positive one. Wiesenfeld also comments on Micheaux's use of religion and the Bible in Body and Soul to accentuate black rights and equality. Wiesenfeld's essay is extremely relevant to the investigation in that she explores directly the absence of a positive representation of blacks in Micheaux's Body and Soul. Nevertheless, she makes clear that Micheaux made his film as a response to racism in order to demonstrate the misunderstood complexity of blacks and their inherent claim to equal humanity. She would also argue that religion and the Bible were important concepts used by Micheaux to convey the equality deserved by all human beings. From this article I would assume that Wiesenfeld would reject the notion that Micheaux was racist against his own kind in creating films such as Body and Soul.

Citation:

Friendly, David T. "Guild Will Honor Pioneer Black Film Director" Los Angeles Times 17 May 1986, natl.

Content and Relevance of Work:

David T. Friendly's article, "Guild Will Honor Pioneer Black Film Director", ran in the Los Angeles Times on the 17^th of May, 1986. The point of the article was to report a recent development in the film industry: the Directors Guild of America would be presenting Micheaux with a lifetime achievement award for his work as a prolific director. The article continues by pointing out that up until this point little if any attention had been devoted by film scholars to Micheaux's achievements as a director. Thus, the rest of the article is Friendly's attempt to clarify Micheaux's work and place in history for the uninformed reader. Friendly's presentation of Micheaux's place in history proves helpful in understanding whether or not Micheaux was truly racist against his own kind. The article paints a picture of Micheaux as a proud black who created films to counter white, racist stereotypes. Friendly even uses Body and Soul as an example of a film, like all of Micheaux's films, that was "warmly received by black audiences." He also points out how Micheaux's films always portray the black man as the hero who comes out on top. Micheaux is also applauded in the article for creating films that countered white Hollywood in their respective casts; Micheaux used light-skinned black actors to play white characters whereas white Hollywood painted white actors to play black characters. The article presents Micheaux as a symbol of black pride and a proponent of black rights. Thus, Friendly's interpretation of Micheaux's films such as Body and Soul is that he was anything but racist against his own kind and actually presented positive images of blacks for black audiences to emulate. This article is very useful for our investigation but also lacks the depth required to understand Micheaux's reason for using negative images of blacks in Body and Soul. In fact, Friendly does not acknowledge Micheaux's negative representations of blacks at all.

Citation:

Green, Ronald J. "Body and Soul" With a Crooked Stick: The Films of Oscar Micheaux. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2004. 66-96.

Content and Relevance of Work:

Ronald J. Green's chapter titled "Body and Soul" in his book With a Crooked Stick: The Films of Oscar Micheaux gives a detailed synopsis of the film as well as a breakdown of several themes central to the film's message. Green's underlying argument throughout the chapter is that the good Paul Robeson character, Sylvester, is the hero of the film with whom the audience is meant to return to reality identifying with. One of Green's initial points is that not all characters in the film are presented negatively. However, he admits that it is clear that the more negative characters such as Reverend Jenkins and the confused Martha Jane definitely receive more screen time than the more positive characters such as Isabelle and Sylvester. Green demonstrates how the majority of the film takes place in Martha Jane's nightmare fantasy in which her daughter is raped by the evil Reverend Jenkins character. In reality, however, Green points out how the film ends with Isabelle marrying the good inventor, Sylvester. Green seems to be implying that Micheaux wants to show the audience that negative white images of blacks are merely fantasies that blacks must not get caught up in. Isabelle represents the next generation of African Americans and thus her decision to marry the good Sylvester represents hope for black communities. Green's chapter is very significant to our investigation because of the chapter's sole focus on Body and Soul as well as Green's attempt to understand Micheaux's use of both negative and positive representations of blacks. Green sees Micheaux's film as both staying true to harsh black realities but also defining the possibility of a positive road ahead for blacks to achieve the American Dream. Green's analysis of the film's plot and characters also provides very useful information toward understanding Body and Soul and Micheaux's underlying goals for directing the film.

New Jersey

Turbans Make Targets, Some Sikhs Find

To appeal to a wider audience, Whitesell has ingeniously pitched Big Momma's House 2 as mind-numbing comedy, pregnant with redundantly inappropriate and awkward quips and gags. However, Big Momma House 2's purportedly feather-light farce grapples with many a complex and politically-charged question regarding the role racial minority cross-dressing plays in contemporary American culture.

Martin Lawrence's dual identity as an ambitious young sharp-shooting National Security agent, driven by his unremitting patriotism to go incognito as an elderly corpulent female, provokes comparisons between his two radically different personae. In doing so, it raises an interesting question: how does our society corner successful young black men into performing absurd self-caricatures in order to be embraced by mainstream culture?

By challenging us to laugh at our own violent and repressive racial and sexual stereotyping, Big Momma's House 2 instigates important cultural conversations regarding America's deep-rooted societal prejudices: have these bigotries really evolved since the Civil Rights Movement, or have they just been transformed and made less recognizable?

The film suggests that if we can allow ourselves to reflect openly and honestly upon these questions and anxieties, instead of displacing them onto a grossly caricatured 250+ pound African-American woman, perhaps we can also preclude the culmination of a Big Momma's House trilogy.

Kozol, Jonathan. . Savage inequalities : children in America's schools / Jonathan Kozol. [051758221X : ] New York : Crown Pub., 1991.
Call#: Van Pelt Library LC4091 .K69 1991

Inequality and racism still exist. They impact children. Check this out especially if you are considering Teach for America. 

Lichtenstein traces a history of the Southern antebellum labor economy, focusing on its convict labor penal system. Lichtenstein cites LeRoy's film specifically, arguing that the film (and Burns’s autobiography) position southern chain gangs against modernity. However, chain gangs represented the South’s attempt to participate in northern economic industrialism. Chain gangs developed roads and infrastructures, enriching the south’s economy and expanding its participation in American culture and accelerated networks of communication. Thus, Lichtenstein "joins a growing number of studies that reject the dichotomy between a modern and antimodern South, and instead seek to link the region’s most appalling features to the process of modernization itself” (xvi). Chain gangs facilitated the South's response to economic and cultural pressures posed by the nation's dominant industries. Thus, the financial corruption and penal brutality which the chain gangs made conspicuous to the nation represent the South’s efforts to progress and to modernize. 

If mounting Depression social anxieties also threatened Hollywood's cultural and economic dominance in 1932, then Warner Brothers' total vilification of the chain gangs, which it depicts as embodying a barbaric and regressive South, suggests a financial motivation for the studio's misreading of the Southern penal system. Of course, markets incentives motivated every aspect of Hollywood production, from Warner Brothers’ propagandization of Chain Gang as a uniquely subversive film – to lure audiences who tended to shy away from overtly political films in 1932 – to the studios’ collusion with FDR to circumvent antitrust proceedings. However, Lichtenstein’s situation of the film within a more complex modernity dialogue puts pressure on conservative Jack Warner’s selection of this story as a vehicle for conveying to the nation his studio’s radical politics. By denying technology and modern industry’s implication in a variety of problems associated with Great Depression society, WB propagandized commercial cinema as a revolutionary alternative to sites of purported cultural backwardness which are in reality much more complex than a Hollywood film reveals.